Rise of Democracies: USA & France (18th-19th Centuries)

Posted on Oct 7, 2024 in History

The Rise of Democracy in the United States

Formation and Early Governance

Delegates from the new states met in Philadelphia and drafted the Constitution, approved in 1787. Liberal principles were incorporated into the country’s fundamental law.

  • The United States is a federal republic, with government functions divided between the capital, Washington D.C., and the states.
  • The head of state is the President, elected by the Electoral College every four years.
  • The principle of separation of powers divides the government into the executive (President), the legislative (Congress, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate), and the judicial (Supreme Court).
  • A series of amendments, or articles added to the Constitution, recognized further individual freedoms and rights.

Expansion and Reform

The number of states doubled because of the incorporation of territories (such as Louisiana). The electoral system imposed was universal manhood suffrage. In 1829, Andrew Jackson was elected President by popular vote. Jackson had founded the Democratic Party, well-established in the South. During his presidency, he introduced new democratic reforms.

Some populations did not have the right to vote: Native Americans, women, and many Black slaves living in the South. The Northern states wanted to abolish slavery completely, but the South was opposed and tried to form an independent slave state. This triggered the American Civil War (1861-1865). The North, more liberal and industrialized than the South, won. Under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln (founder of the Republican Party), slavery was abolished, and all enslaved people were freed.

The French Revolution

Causes of the Revolution

At the end of the 18th century, France was still an absolute monarchy under Louis XVI. Many people had begun to criticize the situation and demand a change in regime. In 1789, a combination of factors triggered the revolution:

  • Liberal Ideas of the Enlightenment: These ideas became popular among the population, including some nobility and clergy. Criticism of absolutism and the division of society into the three estates became widespread.
  • Example of the United States: Some French people, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, had fought alongside the colonists in the American War of Independence.
  • Inequality Before the Law: The wealthy nobility and clergy did not pay taxes, while the middle class and commoners did, leading to resentment and agreement that the nobility did not generate economic benefit for the nation.
  • Economic Crisis: The Seven Years’ War, in which France lost Canada, severely affected the country’s economy. France had to pay off an enormous public debt. Despite this, the court did not reduce its spending on luxuries. The population had grown significantly, and agricultural production could no longer meet the demand for food. A large percentage of the Parisian population was poor and hungry.

There was an atmosphere of great political unrest in Paris and throughout France. Many propaganda pamphlets criticizing the Old Regime were printed and distributed. The King and Queen were criticized and disparaged.

Stages of the Revolution

  1. Estates-General (1789): Faced with economic problems, the Third Estate created the National Assembly to discuss taxation.
  2. National Assembly (1789-1791): Louis XVI attempted to dissolve the Assembly, leading to the storming of the Bastille prison.
  3. Legislative Assembly (1791-1792): Absolutist powers from Austria and Prussia tried to invade France. Different political groups formed in the Assembly: the Girondists (moderates who wanted a constitutional monarchy) and the Jacobins (radical liberals who wanted a republic).
  4. The Republic (1792-1795): The Assembly declared France a republic and became the National Convention, taking control of the legislative and executive branches. The King was executed by guillotine. The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, was formed to protect the revolution. This period, known as the Reign of Terror, saw the execution of many suspected counter-revolutionaries.
  5. The Directory (1795-1799) and the Consulate (1799-1804): After Robespierre’s execution, a government named the Directory was formed.

The Rise of Napoleon

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor. He achieved military victories over Austria and Prussia, gaining control over Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and parts of Germany. He also invaded Spain. Napoleon attempted to conquer Russia but was defeated.

His greatest enemy was Great Britain. He created the Continental Blockade, prohibiting English ships from landing in European ports.

Napoleon implemented many reforms. His domestic policy included the Napoleonic Code, which prohibited torture and modernized civil law. He reorganized the education system and promoted science and culture. He divided France into prefectures, similar to the former provinces.