Rise and Fall of Tsarism: Revolution in Russia
The Autocracy in Late 19th Century Russia
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Russia was a vast empire under the autocratic rule of the Romanov Tsars. Characterized by political and economic backwardness, the Russian Empire stood as the last bastion of absolutism. The Tsar held absolute power over the Orthodox Church, the army, a centralized bureaucracy, and a political police force. Legal political parties and elections were nonexistent in a political system where much of the proletariat and peasantry remained impoverished and illiterate.
Alexander II’s Modernization Attempts
Russian society was predominantly rural. Until the abolition of serfdom, the feudal system was deeply entrenched, and industry was almost nonexistent. Tsar Alexander II, advised by enlightened ministers, initiated a series of reforms. Zemstvos, local councils composed of nobles, citizens, and peasants, were created to address local governance. Significant advancements were made in road construction, healthcare, and education. Many Tsarist opposition members served as doctors or teachers within these institutions. The most significant reform was the abolition of serfdom.
Reasons for Land Reform Failure
- Land was distributed between the nobility and peasantry, with the latter receiving smaller, less productive plots.
- The land was not free; peasants had to purchase it from their former lords, often at exorbitant prices, with a 49-year repayment period.
- While peasants gained personal freedom, they were burdened by redemption payments and state taxes.
- Rapid population growth exacerbated subsistence issues and peasant discontent, as land reform failed to increase productivity or purchasing power.
Revolutionary Ideas in the Late 19th Century
Opposition to Tsarism arose among a minority intelligentsia, often isolated due to the lack of a supportive bourgeoisie and a proletariat to receive their message. Two main trends emerged: Westernizers, who advocated for adopting Western liberal advancements, and Slavophiles, who rejected Western models and idealized the Russian peasantry. Nihilism, a youth movement, viewed the destruction of the existing socio-political order as the only solution. The Populist movement identified the peasantry as the primary revolutionary force.
Opposition to Tsarism
In contrast to Western Europe, 19th-century Russia saw revolutionary advocates with distinct ideologies. New, Western-inspired currents emerged, including the revolutionary socialist party led by Kerensky and the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) led by Lenin. Within the Marxist RSDLP, two factions formed: the Mensheviks, who believed a bourgeois revolution was necessary for capitalist development and a strong proletariat, and the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, who argued that the weak Russian bourgeoisie couldn’t lead a revolution, thus the proletariat, allied with the peasantry, should take the lead.
The Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917
Amidst a growing crisis, Lenin returned to Petrograd in early October, convinced the time was ripe for revolution. On October 10, the Bolshevik Central Committee approved the seizure of power. A revolutionary military committee, headed by Trotsky, was formed. By the 25th, Bolshevik forces controlled key city points. That evening, at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Lenin’s proposals prevailed. Bolshevik troops stormed the Winter Palace, arresting the provisional government. Lenin announced the new regime’s first decrees. The Bolshevik coup was complete, and Russia became the first communist-led nation.
The Revolution of 1905
In the early 20th century, Russia faced political and social unrest, highlighted by its defeat against Japan. This sparked protests against the war and Tsarist autocracy. On Bloody Sunday (January 9), workers marched peacefully to the Winter Palace, presenting a manifesto denouncing their harsh conditions. The Tsarist regime’s brutal response ignited widespread protests among workers and peasants, including the Potemkin mutiny and the Kronstadt naval base revolt. On October 14, the St. Petersburg Soviet, organized by Trotsky, was formed.
The February 1917 Revolution: Dual Power
World War I was the catalyst for revolution. Heavy losses and failed offensives discredited the Tsar. Nicholas II’s leadership and the influence of Rasputin (assassinated in 1916) further eroded public trust. The harsh winter of 1917 worsened living conditions, leading to strikes and demonstrations. On February 25-26, widespread strikes erupted, met with police inaction. Petrograd garrison soldiers joined the rebellion. On February 27, the Petrograd Soviet’s executive committee, primarily Mensheviks, was formed. A provisional committee emerged from the dissolved Duma. The Mensheviks and Socialists reached an agreement with the committee, forming a provisional government. Abandoned, the Tsar abdicated on March 2nd, resulting in dual power in Russia.
February to October: The Triumph of Bolshevism
The provisional government, grappling with revolution and World War I, faced multiple crises. The first provisional government decreed an eight-hour workday and recognized Finnish and Polish independence but postponed major reforms. The Soviets, dominated by Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, favored peace. Lenin, returning from exile, outlined his opposition to the provisional government and the war in his April Theses, demanding immediate peace. He rejected the Soviets’ oppositional role and outlined a program for a Soviet republic. A coalition government failed to address the unrest. A failed offensive, coupled with the July Days uprising, led to another crisis. Bolshevik leaders were arrested. Kerensky’s third provisional government faced General Kornilov’s attempted coup in August, which failed due to opposition from pro-Bolshevik units and the Red Guard, organized by Trotsky. This paved the way for the Bolshevik takeover in October.