Rise and Fall of Primo de Rivera’s Regime in Spain
The Coup of Primo de Rivera and the Rise of Dictatorship
The coup of Primo de Rivera came just one year after Mussolini’s accession to power in Italy, and it preceded other dictatorships that were implanted in southern and eastern Europe within a few years. In the manifesto which preceded the coup, Primo de Rivera invoked the salvation of the country and made known his intention to form a military dictatorship. The population favored the coup, which also had the unconditional support of the army, the Church, the bourgeoisie, and landowners, all of whom wanted and needed the existing social order. However, ranged against were the Republicans, Socialists, Communists, and Anarchists who showed their opposition to a military dictatorship.
The king was happy to accept the facts and chose to hand over power to the General. The assent of the monarch made the coup bloodless and met with little resistance. On September 15, 1923, Primo de Rivera was appointed head of government.
Restoration of Public Order and Abolition of Freedoms
One of the most pressing problems was the restoration of public order. To achieve this, he declared a state of war, and freedoms were abolished. He intensified the repressive acts against the labor movement, created a national militia that was in the service of the regime, underwent a tough policy against nationalism, and the Catalan commonwealth was banned, as was the use of Catalan.
Work of the Boards
The dictator presided over two governments: a Military Directory (1923-25) and a Civil Directory (1925-30). If the economic and social achievements of the dictatorship were to have some popular recognition, this was not achieved, however, in the political sphere, so he could not overcome the transitional arrangements that were intended to be a dictatorship.
The Military Directorate (1923-1925)
During the Military Directorate (1923-25), the government was formed exclusively by generals. Constitutional guarantees were suspended, and the operation of the Administration was in the hands of the army. An attempt was made to politically organize the state on the basis of a single national party, the Spanish Patriotic Union, founded in 1924 in imitation of Italian fascism, composed of conservatives, bourgeois, Catholics, and large landowners. The most important action of this period of government was solving the problem of Morocco, thanks to the Hispano-French joint offensive.
The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In 1925, he abandoned the idea of appointing a civilian government of transience. At the time of the Civil Directorate, political action focused on the development of corporations working to replace the political parties and to achieve its institutionalization with the creation of the Constituent National Assembly, democratically elected by corporate vote, that is, representatives of municipalities and an inventory of associations with voting rights. The members of this House came from agrarian oligarchies.
The Civil Directorate launched a social and economic policy of interventionism, which was successful due to the good international economic situation. This favorable economic situation remained with the regime until 1930. The government has seized the political climate for a number of populist interventions, but not at any time did it propose any fundamental changes in ownership structure or the social situation of production.
The government was concerned with setting educational policy for primary schools and industrial work. It also prepared road projects, expanded rail, constructed dams and canals, and increased public works, which lessened unemployment but increased public debt. The state stepped in to create monopolies (Fosforera, CAMPSA, Telefonica) in key sectors of the economy.
The Fall of Primo de Rivera
In addition to the growing opposition to the regime, confrontations with the status quo, their hostility to the Catalan military, and granting privileges to the Church in university education led to significant social responses. Another reason for the end of the dictatorship was the economic crisis of 1929, which caused the devaluation of the peseta and a progressive deficit in the trade balance.
The widespread opposition to his government made Primo de Rivera consult military commanders in 1930 about what decision he should take. In the absence of explicit support, the dictator resigned on January 28 and went into exile in Paris, where he died two months later. To replace Rivera’s cousin, the king instructed General Berenguer to form a new government.
The Path to the Second Republic
In August 1930, representatives of key Republicans and regionalist parties met, and there was a consensus: the Pact of San Sebastián meant the formation of a united front against the monarchy. The socialist party joined the Covenant in October, and also the CNT decided to support the conspiracies, but not participating directly in it. The front of opposition was closed, and the Revolutionary Committee began to form the provisional government of the Republic.
Berenguer was replaced in February 1931 by Admiral Aznar, who called municipal, provincial, and general elections immediately. All parties could make nominations to the vote. The municipal elections of April 12 gave a resounding victory in the cities to the Republicans and Socialists. These results demonstrated the citizens’ rejection of Alfonso XIII and, therefore, the monarchical system. On April 13, the King accepted the will of the people, suspended the exercise of royal power, and left Spain. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed.
Economic Developments
The Rural World and its Problems
Between 1898 and 1931, Spain was a country based on agriculture, although the situation of the Spanish countryside was not homogeneous despite the slowness of change. The labor force in agriculture decreased, and productivity increased in growing areas, especially since 1914.
Earlier this century, there were three types of land:
- The western estates were prevalent in Spain.
- The smallholding dominated in Galicia and the northern peninsula.
- In the remaining peninsular areas, medium-size farms renting short or long term were common.
There was an oligarchy of landlords, tenants, sharecroppers, and day laborers, many of them temporary and living at subsistence level. The climate of social unrest was continuous in the Andalusian countryside, with the most violent conflicts erupting between 1917 and 1920.
Industrial Evolution
The Spanish industry during this period saw three fundamental changes: the introduction of electricity as a form of energy, the concentration of heavy industry in the Basque Country, and sector diversification. Protectionist laws were developed. The loss of the colonies had particularly affected the Catalan textile industry but resulted in the repatriation of capital that supported the creation of numerous banks.
The Spanish Labor Movement
The Spanish labor movement was divided into two main schools of thought:
- The socialist, represented by the UGT
- The anarchist, articulated around the CNT
Both unions expanded their membership from the beginning of the century until 1939.