Revolutions & Nationalism: 18th & 19th Century Europe
The American Revolution
Reasons for Independence
Many colonists had settled in the 13 colonies along the Atlantic coastal strip of North America since the 17th century. They enjoyed a certain degree of political autonomy and economic prosperity. Enlightenment ideas, such as representative government, citizen participation in politics, and the separation and balance of governmental powers, spread among the colonists.
The conflict began when Britain imposed new taxes. The settlers refused to pay, arguing that they had no representatives in the Parliament of London. In 1773, Great Britain attempted to bring the settlers under military control, and war became inevitable.
Key Facts
- On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence of the 13 colonies was signed in Philadelphia.
- The U.S. Army, commanded by George Washington, defeated the British troops.
- France and Spain aided the rebelling colonists.
- The peace treaty was signed in 1783, and Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the 13 colonies.
- The new country was named the United States of America, and George Washington became its first president.
The Constitution
In 1787, the U.S. Constitution was approved. It is still in effect today and embodies the division of powers: legislative (Congress), judicial (Supreme Court), and executive (President). The Constitution consolidated the principles of the Enlightenment in the U.S.
Popular Sovereignty
Popular sovereignty emphasizes the right to representation; the nation is the source of all political power.
The French Revolution
Background
France was an absolute monarchy with a society divided into estates. Louis XVI maintained the Ancien Régime. The revolution began on July 14, 1789 (Bastille Day, a national holiday in France).
Causes
- Economic: Poor harvests, discontent among the masses, and a financial crisis.
- Social: Discontent among the bourgeoisie, who had little political power despite paying taxes.
- Ideological: Enlightenment thinking and the American Revolution.
Phases
- Estates-General: An assembly with representatives from the three estates was convened to approve new taxes and resolve the crisis.
- Revolt (July 1789): The king accepted the formation of the National Assembly in Paris. The storming of the Bastille occurred, and the revolution spread throughout France.
- National Assembly: Suppression of privileges, approval of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the Constitution of 1791, which the king approved.
- Legislative Assembly: Opposition from nobles, clergy, and the royal family led to the arrest of the king and his forced return to Paris.
- War Abroad: European monarchies, threatened by revolutionary ideas, declared war on France in April 1792.
- Defeats and the Storming of the Palace: France suffered defeats against Austria and Prussia. The people blamed the king, leading to the storming of the Tuileries Palace.
- National Convention: The monarchy was abolished, and the republic was proclaimed. The Girondins (moderates) and the radical Sans-culottes emerged. The Reign of Terror saw the execution of over 50,000 people.
- Thermidorian Reaction: Robespierre was overthrown and executed due to the excesses of the Reign of Terror.
- The Directory (1795): Peace was established to avoid a dictatorship. The Directory was composed of five members. Military successes gave Napoleon Bonaparte significant power.
The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)
Napoleon consolidated his power, becoming First Consul, then Consul for Life, and finally Emperor in 1804, with the support of the army.
Main Actions
- Domestic Policy: The Civil Code was established, enshrining individual freedoms and reforming education.
- Foreign Policy: Napoleon’s empire expanded across Europe, confronting European powers grouped in several coalitions. France defeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia but failed to defeat Great Britain, which imposed a continental blockade. Napoleon’s troops were defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. Anti-Napoleonic coalition armies entered France in 1814. Napoleon was exiled, and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France. Napoleon returned to power for 100 days but was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815 and exiled to Saint Helena.
Consequences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire
- The Ancien Régime disappeared. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen established the principle of equality.
- The king ceased to be an absolute monarch and became a constitutional monarch, recognizing national sovereignty.
- Constitutions were approved.
- The bourgeoisie gained political power, replacing the nobility.
- Ideas of independence fostered movements in Latin American colonies.
- Nationalist movements emerged.
- New revolutionary waves spread across much of Europe in the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s.
The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration
After Napoleon’s defeat, the victors met to restructure the map of Europe, which had been modified by Napoleon, and to restore the Ancien Régime. The United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and Prussia met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to impose monarchical legitimacy in Europe against popular sovereignty. They signed the Holy Alliance, aiming to enforce treaties and provide mutual assistance to suppress revolutionary movements.
The New Map of Europe
- Belgium and Holland were united into one kingdom.
- Italy was divided and remained under Austrian influence in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
- France returned to its 1792 borders.
- The German Confederation was created, dominated by Austria and Prussia.
- Prussia gained the Rhineland.
Constitutions
Constitutions are sets of laws that establish the framework of a government.
Liberalism
Liberal Doctrine
Liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century with the objective of defending individual freedom. It rejected the estate-based society and advocated for a society where all classes could participate. The bourgeoisie embraced liberalism, which was based on the principles enshrined in the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1791).
Liberal Principles
- National sovereignty
- Separation of powers
- Enactment of a constitution
- Freedoms and rights
- Natural rights
Liberal Revolutions
From 1820 onward, a wave of revolutionary movements occurred as a reaction against the restoration. In 1821, Greece rebelled against the Ottoman Empire and, with the assistance of European powers, gained independence in 1829. In Spain, a rebellion against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII took place in 1820. In 1830, a new revolutionary process dethroned the Bourbon dynasty, and Louis Philippe of Orleans became king. Belgium seceded from Holland.
Nationalism
Nationalism emerged in the early 19th century as a feeling of belonging to a community or nation whose members share a common past, language, and culture.
The Revolutions of 1848
A new wave of revolutions occurred in 1848, characterized by the participation of workers alongside the bourgeoisie. Workers, critical of the capitalist system, demanded universal male suffrage and a republican regime. In France, the 1848 revolution led to the abdication of the king, the establishment of the Second French Republic, and the implementation of universal male suffrage. In Italy, uprisings against Austrian rule occurred in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. Several states enacted constitutions and implemented universal male suffrage.
Unification of Italy
Italy was divided into different states: the kingdoms of Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy-Venetia, and the Two Sicilies; the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany; and the Papal States.
Key Players
The Kingdom of Sardinia, under King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour, were the architects of unification.
Events
- The Kingdom of Piedmont, supported by France, expelled Austria from Lombardy. The states of central Italy then joined Piedmont.
- Naples and Sicily were added thanks to the revolutionary actions of Garibaldi.
- In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy.
- Venice and Rome joined later. In 1871, Rome became the capital.
Unification of Germany
Germany was divided into 39 states, each with its own government.
Key Players
The strongest states were Austria and Prussia, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who spearheaded German unification.
Events
- Austria and Prussia fought a war in 1866. Austria’s defeat led to the creation of the North German Confederation. The southern states remained outside this confederation.
- To promote their union with the north, Bismarck fostered national sentiment against an external enemy. He provoked a war against France, which Prussia won in 1870 (Battle of Sedan), gaining the territories of Alsace and Lorraine.
- William I, King of Prussia, was proclaimed German Emperor in 1871, and Berlin became the capital of the new country.