Revolution and Revelation: The Long 19th Century in Western Europe
From Revolution to Revelation: The Transformative Tapestry of the Long 19th Century
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”, wrote Charles Dickens in A Tale of Two Cities. These opening lines encapsulated the profound dualities and contradictions of the 19th century, a period often called the “century of hope”. This era was marked by significant social, economic, and political reforms that reshaped societal frameworks across Western Europe. The century stretched out as a time abundant in unexpected changes and developments, where the “fiction of the people” faced immense challenges in establishing itself amidst frequent fluctuations and transformations.
This quote, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,” marks the opening lines of Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities. The 19th century stretched out as a period abundant in social, economic, and political reforms that reshaped societal frameworks. Known as the “century of hope,” it was characterized by numerous unexpected changes. The “fiction of the people” faced challenges in establishing itself, encountering frequent fluctuations. Exploring the industrialization of the West over this era from various Western European viewpoints and perspectives can be quite intriguing and passionate. This is why this chronological essay will delve into this long century between 1789, the day after the French Revolution, until 1914, at the dawn of World War I.
The Dawn of a New Era: The French Revolution and its Aftermath
The long 19th century, beginning with the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1789 and culminating in the onset of World War I in 1914, was a time of unparalleled change. Following the French Revolution, new political changes ushered in fresh social ideals. The latter part of the Enlightenment era featured works like Voltaire’s Candide (published in 1759), which criticized governmental structures, and Rousseau’s Social Contract (published in 1762), which presented new ways to structure society. These ideas set the stage for revolutionary changes in the societal and political landscapes of Western Europe.
The principles of “liberté, égalité, fraternité” emerged as central values from the French Revolution, serving as a battle cry that inspired other Western nations to initiate their own revolutions.
Economic Upheavals: The Rise of Capitalism and Industrialization
In his 1776 work Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith discussed the capitalist economy, arguing that equality among the wealthy could undermine the merits of competitive labor. He noted that wealth also carries burdens, such as the responsibility to support the less fortunate through taxes, highlighting the introduction of progressive taxation like income taxes in 1910 that scaled with income. Smith advocated for minimal state intervention, coining the term “Laissez-Faire.”
Advances in medical science, such as Pasteur’s vaccines, improved life expectancy and health conditions, yet the 19th century was marked by minimal standards for cleanliness and rampant diseases like syphilis. The concept of division of labor, introduced by Smith, began shaping self-determination in achieving social standards, though it often resulted in monotonous, mechanical labor devoid of intellectual engagement, as depicted in Charlie Chaplin’s portrayals of 19th-century factory workers consumed by their jobs and machinery. An altruistic shift occurred as education expanded, fostering new social awareness. However, societal issues such as alcoholism, crime, and poverty persisted and needed addressing.
Urbanization and its Discontents: Dickens’s London and the Lure of the City
The massive rural-to-urban migration 200 years ago highlighted our innate connection to nature, suggesting a natural affinity for rural environments, as evidenced by the calming presence of trees and nature. Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist vividly illustrates the harsh realities of life in Victorian England, depicting the journey of an orphan from the countryside to the crime-ridden streets of London, where he encounters a society riddled with theft, prostitution, and disease. The novel underscores the importance of stability, family, and deep interpersonal relationships, as well as the benefits of education over authoritarian control.
As we delve into this long century, from 1789 to 1914, it becomes clear that exploring the industrialization of the West over this era from various Western European viewpoints and perspectives can be quite intriguing and passionate. This essay will examine the social, economic, and political reforms that characterized this period, providing a comprehensive analysis of the transformative forces that reshaped Western society. This essay will explore the rise of liberalism, the emergence of Marxism and radical movements, population politics, sociological perspectives, and psychological insights, all within the context of the 19th century’s dynamic and evolving landscape.
The “Fiction of the People”: Constructing a New Social Reality
In a state of nature, humans were once seen as harmonious, though resource scarcity often led to brutality, encapsulated in Thomas Hobbes’ assertion that “Homo homini lupus,” meaning “man is a wolf to another man.” As society evolved, wealth distribution changed, leading to affluence for some and the rise of nationalism and romanticism, which emphasized national belonging and expressive art. Before delving into the essay, it is important to clarify the role that the “fiction of the people” played in the 19th century. So, the 19th century was characterized by the arduous task of constructing “the fiction of the people”, a new societal reality emerging from the ruins of feudal and monarchical systems. This involved the establishment of national identities, secularization, and the creation of public institutions that served as the bedrock for modern society. For example, the establishment of national identities in France and Germany, secularization efforts in education, and the creation of public institutions like museums and libraries were all parts of this reconstruction. These efforts were fraught with challenges as societies grappled with integrating new values and ideas.
Main Part
Art as Social Commentary: Challenging Industrialization and Societal Norms
Renowned literary figures like Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, along with a host of transformative artists, consistently utilized their creative works to evoke powerful emotions amongst their audiences, frequently inspiring a critical stance against the burgeoning tide of scientific and industrial advancements. Their artistic expressions often reflect a profound disapproval of the environmental and societal impacts of industrialization, such as pollution and the encroachment of modernity. Through their masterful pieces, these creators communicated potent messages.
- Gustave Courbet’s painting “L’origine du monde” boldly challenges the intersections of religious dogma with societal norms, portraying religious narratives as potentially fictitious and absurd.
- Eugène Delacroix’s iconic “Liberty Leading the People” captures the tumultuous societal upheavals of his time, featuring Marianne, a symbol of French liberty, as a beacon amidst chaos. This painting vividly illustrates the spirit of revolution and the fight for freedom.
- J.M.W. Turner’s “Rain, Steam, and Speed” from 1844 serves as a powerful symbolic representation of the Industrial Revolution, particularly highlighting the expansion and impact of railway systems as a metaphor for technological progress and its relentless pace.
- Edvard Munch’s “The Scream,” painted in 1893, broke conventional artistic boundaries, introducing a new era of modernist painting that revolutionized artistic expressions of internal psychological realities and existential angst.
Social Transformations: Secularization, Urbanization, and the Rise of Marxism
During this period, society witnessed significant transformations including secularization—a shift away from religious affiliations in public and political life—the division of labor, and dramatic urbanization. This latter phenomenon was marked by a massive migration from rural to urban settings, fundamentally altering the demographic and social structures of the time. In the intellectual arena, German philosopher Karl Marx, together with Friedrich Engels, introduced the “Communist Manifesto” in 1848, advocating for a radical reorganization of society into a classless structure. They argued that societal hierarchies perpetuated inequality and that a communist revolution was essential for achieving true equality and self-determination. Marx and Engels posited that such revolutionary changes were responses to the deep-seated inequalities that plagued capitalist societies. Marx was particularly attentive to the rapid societal changes unfolding in urban centers. He engaged with contemporary anarchists like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to critique the capitalist system, which they believed inherently promoted rivalry and competition, thus fostering societal inequalities. They viewed the state as a “leviathan,” a monstrous construct fabricated by humans to dominate and oppress. According to Marx and his contemporaries, to overcome this leviathan, the people needed to seize control of state institutions through revolutionary acts, paving the way for a society governed by the principles of communism.
Population, Education, and the Rise of Social Darwinism
Thomas Malthus analyzed society through his writings, arguing that education is essential and that public opinion is a powerful force for societal change in line with the will of the population. During this period, societal “fiction” was prevalent, exemplified by Afer Ali’s works. Theodore Roosevelt, who served as the U.S. President from 1901 to 1909, discussed the concept of “Race Suicide” among the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). This period saw societal improvements that led to increased birth rates. For instance, France’s population grew from 20 million in 1700 to 30 million by 1780. In poorer environments, overcrowding facilitated the spread of diseases, food shortages, and educational deficits. As societal issues escalated, people seemed to be heading towards a metaphorical hell, with moral decay often fueled by excessive alcohol consumption, crime, and violence. The urgent need for education became apparent. Unlike other societal elements, education does not operate within a free market, necessitating legislative intervention. This recognition led to the 1881 educational reforms by Jules Ferry in France, establishing public schooling for every child, which in turn fostered societal consent, opinion formation, and a heightened awareness of consequences, thereby reducing violent incidents. Charles Darwin’s 1859 publication “On the Origin of Species” introduced the concept of natural selection, humorously prompting the question of whether we all descend from monkeys. This notion evolved into Social Darwinism, which suggested that certain races or nations were inherently superior to others, contributing to racial tensions during this era, notably between whites and Asians. The materialistic society of the time was marked by a competitive pursuit of wealth and economic prosperity, aiming for an abundance of resources for all. Darwin’s theory also introduced classifications of “sound” and “unsound,” suggesting that controlling the growth of the “unsound” or unfit population through birth rate management was necessary. Women’s liberation movements gained momentum, partly influenced by the realization that having fewer children could lead to better nutrition, housing, and education. Education was recognized as the key to a harmonious society and a deeper understanding of human behavior. Eugenics emerged as a significant concept, promoting the idea of enhancing the genetic quality of the human race, which some saw as a science for improving humanity. This period also saw legal reforms related to abortion and contraception, sparking debates across both conservative and radical spectrums.
The Struggle for Women’s Emancipation: Challenging Patriarchy and Social Norms
The 19th century is often heralded as the beginning of the women’s emancipation movement. In a society where men held dominant roles, often acting as the unquestioned leaders within their homes and communities, these positions of power sometimes led to violent behavior. Women, in response, mounted active and courageous protests, even though they frequently faced mockery and disdain from their male counterparts. This era compelled women to invest more time and energy into advocating for political and social changes, which was especially challenging given the complexities of being a woman at the time. Childbirth carried significant risks, domestic violence was prevalent, and women had virtually no legal rights or opportunities for independence, making divorce an unlikely possibility.
The Temperance Movement and Prohibition: Moral Reform and Unintended Consequences
In the United States, the widespread availability of liquor and intoxicating beverages such as spirits had a profound effect on social behavior, often driving men to spend much of their time in saloons. By the year 1830, it was recorded that the average man over the age of 50 consumed 88 bottles of whiskey annually. This excessive alcohol consumption contributed to a broader moral decline, setting the stage for the temperance movement and the eventual introduction of Prohibition. By the late 19th century, movements aimed at curtailing the use of alcohol gained momentum, culminating in the enactment of Prohibition in the 1920s, formalized by a constitutional amendment ratified in 1933. Despite these laws, Prohibition led to a surge in illegal activities as individuals and groups sought ways to bypass regulations, exemplified by bar owners and German brewers who creatively smuggled alcohol into the U.S. concealed within barrels of sugar. The implementation of Prohibition highlighted the inherent challenges of enforcing laws that were intended to reflect the will of the people but often resulted in unintended consequences, echoing sentiments akin to the dystopian surveillance of “Big Brother is watching you.” The period was also rife with debates concerning science, morality, and the tensions between liberty and equality.
Durkheim’s Insights: From Mechanical to Organic Solidarity
Amid these societal shifts, sociologist Émile Durkheim made significant contributions to understanding social cohesion through his theories on mechanical and organic solidarity. Durkheim posited that pre-industrial societies were characterized by what he called mechanical solidarity, where there existed a strong collective conscience that bound individuals together through shared values and common tasks. In these settings, individuals often performed interdependent roles within simple economic structures, such as those found in artisanal workshops or farming communities.
As the 19th century progressed, Durkheim observed a transition to what he termed organic solidarity in industrialized societies. This form of social cohesion arose from the complex interdependencies that developed among specialized roles within the industrial economy. The advent of mechanization reduced the repetitiveness of tasks and allowed for a broader division of labor. This not only enhanced efficiency but also facilitated individual self-realization by freeing workers from the constraints of monotonous roles. Durkheim’s insights revealed how modern societies, with their intricate networks and specialized roles, fostered new forms of social solidarity and individuality, reshaping the societal landscape in profound ways.
Conclusion: An Era of Transformation and Enduring Hope
In conclusion, the extensive period from 1789 to 1914, often referred to as the long 19th century, was marked by significant transformations across political, economic, and social spheres that facilitated individual self-realization. The shift from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity during this era led to the enactment of various rights and the inclusion of a broader segment of the population in active political life. Societal structures evolved from rigid vertical hierarchies to more fluid and horizontally interconnected networks. Additionally, individuals who had previously never ventured beyond their villages or nearby forests found themselves relocating to cities in search of new opportunities and a fresh start. During this time, capitalism, despite its tendency to alienate, was vigorously challenged by the revolutionary theories of Karl Marx. The period came to a close just before 1914, marking the end of “La Belle Époque.” However, as Victor Hugo poetically asserts in Les Misérables, “Even the darkest night will end and the sun will rise,” reflecting the enduring hope and resilience that characterized this remarkable era.