Restoration of the Spanish Monarchy (1875-1898)
The Restoration of Monarchy (1875-1898)
1. The Political System Restoration
After a failed attempt to establish a democratic regime, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in Spain, returning to census-liberalism. The restoration lasted over 50 years (1874-1931) until the proclamation of the 2nd Republic, with a pause in 1898 due to the loss of the last Spanish colonies, Cuba and the Philippines. This led to a significant political and moral crisis, prompting reforms that ushered in a new era: Regenerationism.
This period encompasses the reigns of Alfonso XII, the regency of Maria Christina of Austria, and King Alfonso XIII. It consolidated a constitutional and parliamentary regime. However, despite the introduction of universal male suffrage in 1890, the political regime of the restoration was never fully democratic, dominated by an oligarchic bourgeoisie.
Over time, the two hegemonic parties, both liberal (Liberal and Conservative), began to fragment. They struggled to address emerging forces such as:
- Unionism and Republicanism: Including figures like Castelar, Pi y Maragall, Salmerón, and Zorrilla.
- Nationalists: Notably Catalan and Basque movements.
- Ultra-Catholics: Including Carlists and Catholic fundamentalists.
1.1 A New Political System
The 1874 pronouncement of Martínez Campos, proclaiming Alfonso XII as King of Spain (restoration of the monarchy), was accepted by the majority of Spaniards. The restoration, orchestrated by Cánovas del Castillo, did not aim to revert to the Elizabethan system. Instead, it sought to establish a constitutional regime in Spain, albeit one rooted in traditional Spanish values (monarchy and the Catholic Church), and to overcome some of the issues of the previous liberal period.
Cánovas had two main objectives:
- Develop a constitution that structured a political system based on bipartisanship.
- Pacify the country (end the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict).
His first political step was to call for elections for a Constituent Cortes. These were the first elections held under universal suffrage, although Cánovas did not favor it and subsequently reverted to census suffrage until 1890, when universal suffrage was readopted.
1.2 The End of Military Conflicts
One of the most positive outcomes of the Restoration was the end of armed conflicts and the recognition of the new system by liberal opinion. Cánovas introduced a system of government based on bipartisanship and the alternation in power of the two major parties. This system, known as the Turno Pacífico, aimed to prevent military pronouncements and ensure institutional stability by ending military intervention in politics. The army was subordinated to civilian authority, but in return, it was granted some autonomy over its affairs and a dedicated budget.
The stability of the system was further bolstered by the end of the Carlist Wars and the Cuban insurrection.
The Bourbon Restoration led to the recognition of Alfonso XII as king by Carlist supporters. The government’s military actions also weakened Carlist strongholds in Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. The conflict lasted longer in the Basque Country and Navarre, where government forces eventually subdued the resistance, leading to the surrender in 1876. Charles VII fled to France in exile that same year.
The immediate consequence of the Carlist defeat was the final abolition of the fueros (regional privileges), subjecting the Basque territories to taxes and military service. However, in 1878, economic agreements were introduced, granting a degree of fiscal autonomy to the Basque Provinces.
The end of the Carlist War allowed for the resolution of the Cuban insurrection (1868-1878) with the Peace of Zanjón. This included a broad amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and political and administrative reforms, granting Cuba representation in the Spanish Parliament. However, the delay or failure to implement these reforms would lead to a new conflict in 1879 (the Little War) and a full-scale insurrection in 1895.
Constitution of 1876
This constitution proved remarkably durable, lasting until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923. Its key features included:
- Recognition of the monarchy as the supreme, unquestionable, and permanent form of government.
- Establishment of a bicameral parliament with a Congress of Deputies and a Senate, based on popular sovereignty.
- Emphasis on dialogue between parties and the need for consensus.
- Granting of legislative power to the Cortes in conjunction with the King.
- A comprehensive bill of rights (property, freedom of assembly, expression).
- Regarding voting rights, it initially adopted census suffrage, but universal male suffrage was introduced in 1890.
- In religious matters, Catholicism was recognized as the state religion, but other faiths were tolerated.