Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain (1875-1898)
The Restoration of the Monarchy (1875-1898)
The Political System of the Restoration
Conservative groups welcomed the restoration of the Bourbons, hoping it would end attempts at democratic and social revolution. Cánovas del Castillo aimed to create a new political model to overcome the problems of previous liberal regimes. His objectives were:
- Develop a constitution establishing a bipartisan political system.
- Bring peace to the country, ending the Cuban War.
The first step was convening elections for a Constituent Cortes. While Cánovas didn’t support universal suffrage, these initial elections used this system.
The Constitution of 1876
This doctrinaire liberal constitution, inspired by conservative principles, addressed monarchy, religion, and property. It established the monarchy as a moderating power, with shared sovereignty and broad powers granted to the monarch. The bicameral Cortes consisted of the Senate and the Congress of Deputies. While the constitution didn’t set voting rights, an 1878 law established census suffrage, and universal male suffrage was approved in 1890. The constitution also declared Spain a Catholic state, restoring quotas for church worship and clergy.
Bipartisanship and Peace
Cánovas introduced a bipartisan system with Conservatives and Liberals alternating in power. This peaceful transition aimed to ensure stability and end military intervention in politics. The army was subordinated to civilian rule, with an 1875 royal order stating its mission was to defend national independence. The regime’s stability was further enhanced by the end of the Carlist Wars and the Cuban War. The government’s efforts reduced Carlist influence in Catalonia. Martínez Campos forced the Carlists’ surrender, leading to the abolition of the fueros. Basque territories became subject to taxes and military service but were granted economic concessions. The Carlist War’s end facilitated the resolution of the Cuban insurrection, resulting in the Peace of Zanjón (abolishing slavery and promising reforms). However, the failure of these reforms led to further conflict.
Political Life and Alternation in Power
Dynastic Parties
Cánovas, the main Alfonsino leader, had defended the monarchy. After Alfonso XII’s return, his party became the Conservative Party. Cánovas encouraged Sagasta to form a more progressive party, the Liberal Party, comprising progressives, unionists, and liberal republicans. While ideologically similar, Conservatives favored political stagnation, while Liberals advocated for universal male suffrage and social reform. Alternation in power aimed to ensure stability.
Caciquismo and Electoral Fraud
Corruption and caciquismo (political bossism) were widespread. Caciques, influential figures, manipulated elections to ensure victory for the party calling the elections. They used their influence to control votes, often in collusion with civil authorities.
Development of Party Shifts
Despite challenges, the alternating system functioned. The Conservative Party remained in power longer, but the Liberal Party returned under Sagasta. An agreement, the “Pacto del Pardo,” allowed Liberals to govern longer than the Conservatives. During Sagasta’s government, reforms were implemented, including a law eliminating the distinction between legal and illegal parties and the introduction of universal male suffrage.
Marginal Political Forces
The Evolution of Republicanism
Facing repression, republicans were divided. Castelar adapted, forming the Posibilista Republican Party. Ruiz Zorrilla, advocating for violent action, founded the Radical Party. Pi y Margal led the Federal Republican Party. The introduction of universal male suffrage in 1886 allowed for some republican representation and alliances with worker’s parties like the PSOE, founded by Pablo Iglesias in 1879.
The Carlist Transformation
After their defeat, Carlism was banned. The 1876 Constitution excluded Carlist succession. Cándido Nocedal led the Carlist reorganization, with Vázquez de Mella proposing a modernized program. This program maintained Catholic principles but internal disputes arose. Ramón Nocedal, accusing Carlos VII of not sufficiently supporting the papacy, founded the Catholic National Party. The Carlists maintained military hierarchies and founded the requetés militia.
Other Political Forces
The state’s Catholicism led to new groups. Pope Leo XIII ended support for Carlism. Catholic liberals, led by Alejandro Pidal, emerged. Moret and Segismundo founded the Dynastic Democratic Party. Serrano formed another dynastic group.
The Rise of Nationalisms and Regionalisms
Catalan Nationalism: Driven by a burgeoning industrialist class in Barcelona, Catalan nationalism sought economic protectionism and greater representation.
Basque Nationalism: Emerging in the 1890s, it focused on defending the Basque language and culture.
Galician Nationalism: Primarily cultural, it aimed to revive the Galician language and promote its use in literature.
Valencianism, Aragonese, and Andalusianism: These movements gained prominence in the 20th century, with Valencianism as a cultural trend and Andalusianism centered in Seville.
The Overseas War: Cuba
Following the Peace of Zanjón, Cuba awaited promised reforms. Unfulfilled, two parties emerged: the Autonomist Party, advocating for autonomy, and the Union Constitutional Party, initially focused on abolishing slavery. The lack of reforms fueled desires for independence. Tariff increases in 1891 angered the United States. A small insurrection in 1879 was easily suppressed. However, a major uprising in 1895, led to Weyler’s harsh repression. The war was unfavorable for Spain, and after Cánovas’s assassination, Weyler was replaced. A strategy of offering autonomy and universal male suffrage was implemented.
U.S. Intervention
Following Spain’s refusal to sell Cuba, the U.S., using the sinking of the Maine as a pretext, declared war. The U.S. easily defeated Spain.
Consequences of the Disaster of ’98
Political and Moral Crisis
While the crisis was less severe than anticipated, it had a significant psychological impact. The Restoration system survived, but regeneracionista policies emerged.
The End of an Era
The Disaster of ’98 marked the end of the Restoration as envisioned by Cánovas and the rise of a new generation of intellectuals and entrepreneurs during the reign of Alfonso XIII.