Respiratory and Urinary Systems: Functions and Common Problems
The Respiratory System
The entry point for air into the body is primarily through the nose, with some air entering through the mouth. The nose serves to warm, clean, and moisten the air. The nose consists of two nostrils (nares), a septum, and tube-shaped cartilage inside the nose (turbinates). The nose is very vascular, which means that it contains many blood vessels, which is why the nose bleeds easily. The blood in these vessels warms the air as it enters the rest of the respiratory tract. In addition, multiple hairs line the nose and filter out dust and other particles. Finally, the nose produces mucus, which helps clean and moisten the air.
The air passes through the nose or mouth and proceeds into the throat (pharynx).
Sights and sounds are valuable tools in the physical exam of a patient with a respiratory problem. Inspection may reveal an abnormal chest shape, a patient working harder to breathe, or a change in skin color. When listening to the patient’s chest (auscultation), an examiner may notice changes in breathing sounds.
Lab data mainly deal with the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood. Capnography and oximetry are fast tests that provide this information, but more specialized tests examine how well the lungs work.
Spirometry measures the strength of breathing, while a ventilation–perfusion scan measures how effectively oxygen and blood reach different parts of the lungs. Finally, it may be necessary to get a closer look to get to the root of the problem (e.g., bronchoscopy and thoracoscopy).
Respiratory System Vocabulary
- nose-nas/o (Latin for “nose”), rhin/o (Greek for “nose”)
- pharynx (throat)-pharyng/o
- sinus-sin/o, sinus/o
- air or lungs-pneum/o, pneumat/o, pneumon/o
- lungs-pulmon/o
- lobe-lob/o
- bronchus-bronch/o, bronchi/o
- rib-cost/o
- chest-thorac/o, pector/o (also pectus), steth/o
- diaphragm-phren/o
- oxygen-ox/o
- breathing-spir/o, -pnea
- carbon dioxide-capn/o (Greek for “smoke”), carb/o (Latin for “coal”)
- pnea-breathing
- eu-good
- ation-process
- ventil-breathing
- broncho-bronchus
- Phreno-diaphramg
- pleur-plaura
- pertoc-chest
- ex-out
- ptysis-cough
- trag-drag
- re-back
- tel-complete
- ectasis-expansion
- bronchi-broncus
- chylo-chyle
- ema-condition
- py-pus
- em-in
- phreno-diaphragm
- ptosis-drooping condition
- fusion-pour
- pyo-pus
- pharyngo-throat
- somno-sleep
- laryng-larynx
- rhin-nose
- bronchiol-bronchiole
- chron-time
- struct-build
- ob-in the way
- isy-inflamation
- cele- pouch / tumor / hernia
- tuss-cough
- ive-agent
- dilatador-expander
- muco-mucos
- lytic-breakdown agent
Respiratory System Abbreviations
- CF-cystic fibrosis
- COPD-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- CPAP-continuous positive airway pressure. a treatment for apnea involving keeping a patient’s airways open using air pressure delivered via a face mask
- CPR-cardiopulmonary resuscitation
- CT-computed tomography
- CTA-clear to auscultation when an examination reveals nothing abnormal about a patient’s lung
- CXR- chest x-ray
- DOE- dyspnea on exertion
- ETT-endotracheal tube
- LRTI-lower respiratory tract infection
- LTB-laryngotracheobronchitis
- MRI-magnetic resonance imaging
- OSA-obstructive sleep apnea
- PE-pulmonary embolism
- PET-positron emission tomography
- PFT-pulmonary function test
- PSG-polysomnography
- SOB-shortness of breath
- T&A-tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy
- TB-tuberculosis
- URI/URTI-upper respiratory infection, upper respiratory tract infection
- V/Q-ventilation–perfusion scan
The Urinary System
The kidneys, the unsung heroes of the body, perform a similar function for the blood. The cells of the body are in constant contact with the blood, just like fish are always in contact with the water in an aquarium. Cells require just the right balance of pH, minerals, water, and sugar, and the kidneys monitor and regulate these levels. If they did not perform their job, blood would soon become toxic.
The basic working unit of the kidney is called the nephron. There are more than two million nephrons in a single kidney. Blood passes through the kidneys into a cluster of small blood vessels known as the glomerulus. Here, the blood is filtered, with water and nutrients being forced into the surrounding capsule around the glomerulus. This filtered liquid (filtrate) then flows through a series of small tubes.
The male reproductive system shares structures with the urinary system. For this reason, urologists deal with both urinary tract problems and male genital problems. The male reproductive system is made up of the testicles, the epididymis, the seminiferous tubules, the prostate gland, and the penis.
The structures of the male genital system can be divided by their function into three categories: those that make and store sperm, those that make special carrier fluid for sperm, and the outer parts. The first category makes and stores sperm. Each sperm carries half of the blueprint for a human life (23 chromosomes). The organ that makes these blueprint carriers is called a gonad. The male gonads are testicles and the female gonads are the ovaries.
In addition to making sperm, the testicles also produce testosterone, the male hormone that causes male character traits like muscle growth and facial hair. While sperm cells are made in the testicles, they are stored in the epididymis. During sexual intercourse, the sperm cells travel out of the epididymis via ducts called the vas deferens
Male patients can have specific problems with their genitourinary systems. The prostate gland is a common cause of problems in older men. The prostate gland may become enlarged (benign prostate hypertrophy), infected (prostatitis), or cancerous. Prostate symptoms include pain and blocked flow of urine, leading to a weak urine stream or difficulty starting a urine stream at all.
The testicles can cause problems in any age group. Testicular carcinoma is the most common form of cancer in young adult men. It usually presents as a painful lump on the testicle. The testicle can also become infected (orchitis), a problem usually associated with the mumps.
Since testicles hang from the body, it is possible for one of them to become twisted (testicular torsion). This can cut off the blood supply to the testicle and is considered a medical emergency. Concerns in other parts of the reproductive system include infection of the epididymis (epididymitis) and swelling of the veins in the scrotum (varicocele).
Urinary System Vocabulary
- glomerulus (plural: glomeruli)-glomerul/o
- kidney-nephr/o, ren/o
- Renal pelvis-pyel/o
- Urine-ur/o, urin/o
- Stone-lith/o
- Bladder-cyst/o, vesic/o
- Urethra-urethr/o
- Ureter-ureter/o
- opening-meato
- penis-balan/o
- epididymis-epididym/o
- testicle-orch/o, orchi/o, orchid/o, test/o, testicul/o
- prostate-prostat/o
- sperm-sperm/o, spermat/o, sperm/i
- an-no
- ur-urine
- cyst blader
- cysto-blader
- plegia-paralysis
- dynia-pain
- dys-bad
- con-together
- nephr-kidney
- olig-few
- dips-thirst
- py-pus
- rrhexis-rupture
- genic-creating
- keto-ketones
Urinary System Abbreviations
- BUN-blood urea nitrogen
- Bx-biopsy
- cath-catheter
- ESWL-extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
- HD-hemodialysis
- I&O-intake and output
- IVP-intravenous pyelogram
- IVU-intravenous urogram
- KUB-kidneys, ureters, bladder
- OAB-overactive bladder
- PKD-polycystic kidney disease
- RP-retrograde pyelogram
- SUI-stress urinary incontinence
- UA-urinalysis
- AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- BPH-benign prostate hyperplasia
- DRE-digital rectal exam
- ED-erectile dysfunction
- HIV-human immunodeficiency virus
- HPV-human papilloma virus
- HSV-herpes simplex virus
- PSA-prostate-specific antigen
- STD/STI-sexually transmitted disease, sexually transmitted infection
- TURP-transurethral resection of the prostate
Women’s Health
Women frequently see health care providers for prenatal care throughout a pregnancy. Just prior to delivery (antepartum), it is important to determine how the baby is positioned inside the mother (presentation). By the time the baby is ready for delivery, its head should be facing downward (cephalic), but at times a baby’s bottom or legs will be near the birth canal (breech). Because it is harder to deliver a baby in breech presentation, most obstetricians will choose to deliver the baby surgically (cesarean section).
During the antepartum visits, a health care worker will also need to determine the baby’s size (fetometry), whether or not any birth defects (congenital anomalies) are present, and the womb’s fluid (amniotic fluid) level. A large (macrocephaly) or small (microcephaly) head could indicate a problem with the brain. Too little amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) generally indicates kidney problems in the baby. Too much fluid (polyhydramnios) can have numerous causes, including diabetes in the mother or gastrointestinal or urinary problems in the baby.
During delivery, the goal is a normal, uncomplicated delivery (eutocia). However, the delivery can be unusually painful (dystocia), perhaps if the baby’s head is larger than the delivery canal (cephalopelvic disproportion). This condition is another common reason for a cesarean section delivery.
After delivery (postpartum), the mother will have follow-up exams to ensure that she is recovering well and to determine whether she has begun producing breast milk (lactorrrhea). This usually happens by 3 to 4 days after delivery.
Women often come to health care providers with problems with menses. Their menses can be too frequent (metrorrhagia), too heavy (menorrhagia), or both (metromenorrhagia). Patients also may experience skipped periods (oligomenorrhea) or none at all (amenorrhea).
Women may also present with complaints of abnormal discharge. The discharge’s odor and color can be good indicators of its cause. Sexually transmitted infections, such as gonorrhea, are a common cause of abnormal discharge.
During pregnancy, a woman’s “water” breaking is also a discharge (amniorrhea). It is a good indicator that delivery is near.
Women’s Health Vocabulary
- vagina-colp/o, vagin/o
- vulva-episi/o, vulv/o
- perineum- perine/o
- woman-gynec/o, gyn/o
- cervix-cervic/o
- uterus- hyster/o, metr/o, uter/o
- ovary-oophor/o, ovari/o
- menstruation-men/o
- fallopian tube-salping/o
- chorion-chori/o, chorion/o
- fetus-fet/o
- gyneco-woman
- hyster-uterus
- mast-breast
- eun-counch
- ptosis-drooping codition
- a-no
- cervic-cervix
- sten-narrow
- oophoro-ovary
- `pyo-pus
- cephalo-head
- dyna-power
- toco-birth
- tion-process
- concept-concevive
- cept-conception
- fertiliz-fertile
- im-in
- gest-carry
- intra-during
- parthum-birth
- lack-milk
- nat-birth
- nato-birth
- neo-new
- peri-around
- falpingo-fallopian tube
- cele-tumor/hernia/pouch
- metro-uterus
- meno-menstruation
- colpo-vagina
- ovar-ovary
- top-place
- ec-outside
- cyesis-pregnancy
- pseudo-false
- om-muscle
Women’s Health Abbreviations
- BUN-blood urea nitrogen
- Bx-biopsy
- cath-catheter
- ESWL-extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
- HD-hemodialysis
- I&O-intake and output
- IVP-intravenous pyelogram
- IVU-intravenous urogram
- KUB-kidneys, ureters, bladder
- OAB-overactive bladder
- PKD-polycystic kidney disease
- RP-retrograde pyelogram
- SUI-stress urinary incontinence
- UA-urinalysis
- AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- BPH-benign prostate hyperplasia
- DRE-digital rectal exam
- ED-erectile dysfunction
- HIV-human immunodeficiency virus
- HPV-human papilloma virus
- HSV-herpes simplex virus
- PSA-prostate-specific antigen
- STD/STI-sexually transmitted disease, sexually transmitted infection
- TURP-transurethral resection of the prostate