Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: A Comprehensive Guide
Introduction to Research (Mackey & Gass)
What is Research?
Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at exploring and understanding phenomena, answering questions, and generating knowledge. It can be formal or informal, depending on the level of rigor and structure involved.
Types of Research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research focuses on understanding the meaning and experiences of individuals or groups. It often involves open-ended questions, observations, and interviews. Examples of qualitative research methods include ethnography, case studies, and grounded theory.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research focuses on measuring and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns and relationships between variables. It often involves surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
Research Report Structure
A typical research report includes the following sections:
- Title Page
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Method
- Results
- Discussion & Conclusion
- References
- Appendices (optional)
The Nature of Research (Brown & Rodgers)
Primary Research
Primary research involves collecting original data through methods such as surveys, experiments, and observations.
Secondary Research
Secondary research involves analyzing existing data from sources such as books, articles, and reports.
Contextual Factors in Second Language Research
Several contextual factors can influence second language research, including:
- International and national context (e.g., political climate)
- Professional context (e.g., research trends)
- Institutional context (e.g., research priorities)
- Personal context (e.g., researcher’s background and interests)
What is Research and How Does This Book Approach It? (Dornyei)
Qualities of a Good Researcher
A good researcher possesses the following qualities:
- Genuine curiosity
- Common sense
- Ability to generate good ideas
- Discipline and responsibility
The Selection of Research Design (Creswell)
Research Designs
Research designs can be categorized into three main types:
- Quantitative: Focuses on measurement and statistical analysis.
- Qualitative: Focuses on understanding meaning and experiences.
- Mixed Methods: Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches.
Philosophical Worldviews
Different research designs are often associated with specific philosophical worldviews:
- Postpositivism: Emphasizes objectivity, measurement, and theory verification.
- Social Constructivism: Emphasizes the subjective nature of reality and the importance of understanding multiple perspectives.
- Advocacy and Participatory: Focuses on social justice and empowering marginalized groups.
- Pragmatism: Emphasizes the practical consequences of research and the importance of finding solutions to real-world problems.
Strategies of Inquiry
Researchers can choose from various strategies of inquiry, including:
- Quantitative
- Qualitative
- Mixed Methods (sequential, concurrent, transformative)
Research Methods
The choice of research method depends on the research question, the researcher’s philosophical worldview, and the available resources.
Review of the Literature (Creswell)
Importance of Literature Review
A literature review is crucial for several reasons:
- Determines the significance of the research topic.
- Provides insights into existing research and methodologies.
- Identifies gaps in knowledge.
- Helps refine the research question and design.
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review
Creswell suggests the following steps for conducting a literature review:
- Identify keywords.
- Search library databases and other sources.
- Select relevant literature.
- Create a literature map.
- Draft summaries of key studies.
- Organize the literature review.
Using Literature in Quantitative and Qualitative Studies
The role of literature review differs in quantitative and qualitative studies:
- Quantitative: Literature review often provides a theoretical framework and guides the development of hypotheses.
- Qualitative: Literature review helps to contextualize the study and inform the research questions.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Research (Myles)
Systematicity and Variability in SLA
SLA research explores the systematic and variable nature of second language learning:
- Systematicity: Learners follow predictable stages of development, regardless of their native language or learning context.
- Variability: Learners differ in the rate and ultimate attainment of L2 proficiency.
Learning Models and Teaching Applications
SLA research has informed various learning models and teaching approaches, such as:
- Universal Grammar
- Cognitive models
- Interactionist models
- Communicative Language Teaching
Quality Criteria, Research Ethics, and Other Research Issues (Dornyei)
Quality Criteria for Research
Researchers must consider various quality criteria to ensure the rigor and trustworthiness of their work:
- Reliability: Consistency of research findings.
- Measurement Validity: Accuracy of measurement instruments.
- Research Validity: Overall soundness of the research design and conclusions.
Qualitative Criteria for Qualitative Research
Qualitative research emphasizes criteria such as:
- Thick description: Rich and detailed accounts of the phenomenon under study.
- Credibility: Trustworthiness of the findings.
- Transferability: Applicability of the findings to other contexts.
- Dependability: Consistency of the research process.
- Confirmability: Neutrality and objectivity of the researcher.
Research Ethics
Ethical considerations in research include:
- Informed consent
- Confidentiality
- Anonymity
- Data ownership
Quantitative Data Collection
Sampling Concepts
Key concepts in quantitative sampling include:
- Sample: A subset of the population selected for study.
- Population: The entire group of individuals or objects of interest.
- Representativeness: The extent to which the sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.
Sampling Procedures
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling methods ensure that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Examples include:
- Random sampling
- Stratified random sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Cluster sampling
Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling methods do not guarantee equal selection probability. Examples include:
- Quota sampling
- Snowball sampling
- Convenience sampling
Sample Size
The appropriate sample size depends on various factors, such as the research design, the desired level of precision, and the population size.
Quasi-experimental Design
Quasi-experimental designs resemble true experiments but lack random assignment to treatment and control groups. Researchers must carefully consider potential threats to validity and employ strategies to mitigate them.
Experimental and Quasi-experimental Studies
Experimental and quasi-experimental studies are valuable for investigating cause-and-effect relationships. However, they require careful design and implementation to ensure internal and external validity.
Classroom Interaction Research
Classroom interaction research examines the complex dynamics between teachers and students, and among students themselves. Key topics include teacher talk, questioning techniques, error correction, and student participation.
Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative data collection methods are flexible and iterative, allowing researchers to explore phenomena in depth and generate rich descriptions. Key concepts include:
- Iteration: Cyclical process of data collection and analysis.
- Saturation: Point at which no new information emerges from additional data.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are essential criteria for evaluating research quality:
- Reliability: Consistency and repeatability of research findings.
- Validity: Accuracy and trustworthiness of research conclusions.
Conclusion
This comprehensive guide provides an overview of key concepts and methods in research methodology, with a focus on applied linguistics. By understanding these principles, researchers can design and conduct rigorous studies that contribute to our understanding of language learning and teaching.