René Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and the Discourse on Method
Historical Context of Descartes
Descartes is situated in the first half of the 17th century, whose characteristics are:
- Political Situation: Concentration of political power and territorial unification. This stage is known as the Old Regime, characterized by the concentration of power (the king controlled politics, economy, and culture) within an absolute monarchy.
- Economy: The discovery of America caused the expansion of maritime trade, giving rise to capitalism. However, the plague, wars, and bad harvests brought a crisis.
- Society: The 17th century was a century of war (civil war in England, the Thirty Years’ War, etc.). In society, it is important to mention the outbreaks of plague and bad harvests.
- Culture: This was the era of the Baroque. Painting and literature had their expression, as did Baroque music (especially in Spain, which was in its Golden Age).
Philosophical Biography
Born in 1596, Descartes studied, then left the army. He went to Holland, and in 1649, he was called by the Queen of Sweden. He went to Sweden, where he died.
Works
Discourse on Method, Meditations, among others. The Discourse on Method (his best work) was published, and Descartes divided it into six parts:
- Differing views
- Merits and drawbacks of logic
- Elaboration of rules of conduct
- First evidence that leads to doubt all
- Physical
- Cartesian
Ontological Presuppositions
Retrospective vision:
- Coincidence in science and philosophy that the “being” of things, its essence, is the concept.
- This conception is a pair of different conceptions of truth.
- The conception of being as a concept leads mathematics to be the science par excellence.
Descartes’ Relationship with Saint Thomas Aquinas
One of the key aspects of Chapter IV of the Discourse on Method is the demonstration of the existence of God. Descartes demonstrated it from the idea of infinity and perfection (if there are in my thoughts ideas of perfection and infinity, and these do not come from experience and do not come from me because I am finite and imperfect, it means that there is an infinite and perfect being, i.e., God).
Saint Thomas says that to know that something exists is to go from the sensible. From the existence of the concept “God” is just one concept. Thomas does not show God as an effect from a known cause because we do not know God. The demonstration cannot be a priori but a posteriori, going from the sensible to a first cause that would be God. Here, the five ways of Saint Thomas are a posteriori.
Assessment of the Current Situation
In the part where Descartes demonstrates the existence of God (4th part, metaphysics), we can say that in Western societies, religion has lost its social importance, and the demonstration of the existence of God is not an issue “on the table” in the current philosophy. Modern society moves for money; that’s the underlying theme today.
Method and Reform of Knowledge
As the book is like an autobiography, it tries to explain the life of Descartes.
Reform of Knowledge
Descartes compares the state of confusion with a building, and he continues comparing it to a point so confusing that it is impossible to say anything with certainty. However, Descartes distinguishes science as consisting of provable mathematical propositions, unlike philosophy, which is not demonstrable and is based only on probable arguments. Once exposed, Descartes states that his proposed reform is to review everything and put everything, but this time with stronger “foundations” on indubitable truths.
In search of a method, Descartes focuses the theme that addresses this part in the establishment of a set of rules, easy to apply, certain that if followed step by step, we will arrive at the truth. The method aims to overcome relativism and skepticism and eliminate erroneous principles from science.
Rules of the Method
- Evidence: Evidence is the only criterion of truth. Evidence is clear and distinct; it is either given or not given (it does not admit degrees), rejecting all that is probable.
- Analysis: A complex idea is to be decomposed into its simple elements, a proceeding that goes from the unknown to the known. The whole method is based on order.
- Synthesis: Provides a logical order in the deduction, which allows the passage from the simple to the complex.
- Enumeration: Justifies the 2nd and 3rd rules. The 2nd: make a complete enumeration of all the circumstances. The 3rd: overhaul, claiming not to have omitted anything in the deductive process.
Metaphysics
“I Think, Therefore I Am”
The desire for clarity and precision leads Descartes to raise a methodical doubt. Descartes applies doubt to three levels:
- Doubt the senses: if they deceive me once, they can do so always.
- Doubt the possibility of distinguishing between sleep and wakefulness, for thoughts can come from one or the other.
- Question mathematics through the hypothesis of the evil genius.
Then Descartes realizes that he can doubt everything except the fact that he is doubting.
Substance
The being of the mind is thinking and does not need another thing to remain so. Hence, his conception of substance: that which exists in such a way that it does not need another to exist. There follows a series of consequences: I am a thing, I am a thinking thing (res cogitans), etc.
Criterion of Truth
If “I think, therefore I am” is 100% secure, all that has the same characteristic is true. So this is the criterion to determine what is true and what is not.
Essence and Existence of God
Evidence for the existence of God:
- Epistemological Test: I have no idea and a variety of perfection.
- Test of Causation: My own existence, as I have told myself, I cannot give myself, but someone able to give me the idea of absolute perfection, i.e., God.
- Argument: When I think “perfect,” I think that nothing is missing; otherwise, it would not be perfect. In fact, it lacked neither existence. Therefore, there is the “self” that is God.
These three arguments are based on the ontological argument.