Renaissance Transformations: Humanism, Science, and Art
The Renaissance: A New Era of Thought
Humanism: The Anthropocentric Shift
There were many political, social, and economic changes in Europe from the 15th century onwards. These changes were accompanied by important shifts in the way that people viewed the world.
Humanism was the philosophical and cultural movement that spread through Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. The medieval theocentric viewpoint held that all human activities revolved around God. Humanists still believed in God; however, they adopted the anthropocentric viewpoint that human intelligence was key to understanding and interpreting the universe.
- According to the humanists, the use of reason and experience advanced knowledge.
- Humanists observed nature and carried out experiments, an approach that laid the foundations for the scientific revolution of the 17th century.
- They felt deep curiosity about the physical and spiritual world, wanting to know about everything.
The term ‘Renaissance Man’ refers to humanist scholars who explored all fields of human activity. They were inspired by the cultural inheritance of Antiquity. After the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars went to live in Europe, bringing Greek and Roman texts which were of great interest to scholars. Most medieval texts were written in Latin, but under humanist influence, many literary works were now written in modern languages.
The Spread of Humanist Ideas
Johannes Gutenberg perfected the printing press in around 1440. This meant that each book no longer had to be copied by hand. Consequently, a larger number of books could be produced in less time. It became less expensive to make books, so more people had access to them.
Academies were cultural centers where humanists exchanged ideas and knowledge. The Platonic Academy, for instance, was founded by Cosimo de’ Medici in Florence in 1459. Universities, like those of Vienna, Krakow, Bologna, and Alcalá de Henares, promoted the study of classical culture. Humanists also traveled to meet each other and exchanged ideas through written correspondence. In this way, humanist ideas spread throughout Europe.
Renaissance Science: Questioning the Cosmos
During the Middle Ages, the ideas of great classical thinkers like Aristotle were accepted without discussion. But during the Renaissance, scholars had such an immense desire for knowledge that they were prepared to question everything. They carried out experiments to prove their theories.
Astronomy, medicine, and physics were the main branches of Renaissance science. Geographical discoveries also led to advances in cartography, botany, and zoology.
Astronomy: Copernicus and the Heliocentric Model
In 1543, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, presenting his heliocentric theory. According to Copernicus, the Sun was the center of the universe, not the Earth, and all the planets revolve around the Sun. However, the Church continued to insist that the Earth was the center of the universe.
Physics: Leonardo da Vinci’s Contributions
The most important scientist in this field was Leonardo da Vinci, who made numerous contributions to hydraulic and aerodynamic mechanics. He is responsible for inventions such as gears, propellers, windmills, the flying machine, the glider, the crane, the tank, and the warship. He also carried out research in the fields of anatomy, astronomy, and botany.
Renaissance Art: Innovation and Ideal Beauty
Renaissance art broke with the traditions of the Middle Ages. Its main focus of interest was the human being. Artists looked for an ideal form of beauty, finding inspiration in the classical world of ancient Greece and Rome. They tried to achieve harmony and proportion in their art.
The Renaissance style began in Italy and developed in two main stages:
- In the 15th century (Quattrocento), it centered on Florence.
- During the High Renaissance (or Cinquecento) of the 16th century, it centered on Rome.
Patrons and Artists: Fueling Creativity
The prosperous Italian city-states were home to important patrons. These wealthy noblemen and burghers appreciated education and the arts. They supported artists and gave large sums of money towards building and decorating churches and palaces.
The Medici family of Florence were patrons of some of the greatest Renaissance artists, including Donatello and Michelangelo. Other important patrons were the Sforza in Milan, the Gonzaga in Mantua, and Popes Julius II and Leo X in Rome.
Architects, sculptors, and painters were no longer anonymous craftsmen. They were artists who signed their work. The conception of a work of art became as important as the technical skill required to make it.
The High Renaissance: Rome’s Artistic Zenith
The cultural movement of the 16th century is known as the High Renaissance (or Cinquecento). Under the patronage of the Popes, Rome became a key center of influence. Italy’s greatest architects and artists, for example Donato Bramante and Michelangelo, worked on Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.
Architecture of the High Renaissance
Andrea Palladio designed small palaces in the countryside, like the Villa Rotonda near Vicenza.
High Renaissance Sculpture
High Renaissance sculpture was large-scale and monumental. Michelangelo Buonarroti was the outstanding sculptor. His David, Moses, and the Pietà were among his masterpieces.
Master Painters of the High Renaissance
The leading Renaissance artists included the following:
- Leonardo da Vinci: His works include The Last Supper and The Mona Lisa (La Gioconda).
- Michelangelo: Painted the altar wall and ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
- Raphael: Painted Madonna of the Goldfinch and the frescoes in the Vatican known as The School of Athens.
- Titian: The Venus of Urbino was one of his most famous works.