Renaissance and Reformation: Key Figures, Movements, and Innovations
Reformation Religions: Founders and Geographical Spread
Religion | Year | Founder | Regions of Influence |
Lutheranism | 1517 | Martin Luther | Germany and Scandinavian countries |
Anglicanism | 1534 | Henry VIII | England |
Calvinism | 16th century | John Calvin | Switzerland |
Reformation Doctrines: Lutheranism vs. Counter-Reformation
Lutheranism | Counter-Reformation | |
Salvation based on… | By faith | By deeds |
Ecclesiastical authority | No pope | Pope |
Sacraments | Baptism and Eucharist. | Seven Sacraments. |
Veneration of Saints and the Virgin Mary | No | Yes |
Liturgy | In the vernacular language. | In Latin. |
Bible | In the vernacular language. | In Latin. |
Key Figures of the Renaissance and Reformation
Nicolaus Copernicus: Heliocentric Theory
Nicolaus Copernicus was a famous astronomer who lived in the 16th century and who formulated the heliocentric theory of the solar system. Copernicus said that the Sun was at the center of the solar system. He also posited that the size and speed of each planet’s orbit depended on its distance from the Sun.
Copernicus’s theory had important consequences for later thinkers of the Scientific Revolution, including such major figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton.
Niccolò Machiavelli: Political Philosophy and The Prince
Born on May 3, 1469, in Florence, Italy, Niccolò Machiavelli was a political philosopher and statesman.
He wrote *The Prince*, a handbook for politicians on the use of ruthless, self-serving cunning. We could summarize the book with one sentence: “Sometimes, the ends justify the means.”
Some authors coined the term “Machiavellian,” establishing Machiavelli as the “father of modern political theory.”
Thomas More: Humanist, Politician, and Utopia
He was an English politician and humanist.
His most significant work as a political thinker was *Utopia*, in which he criticized the established political, social, and religious order.
His refusal to recognize Henry VIII’s marriage to Anne Boleyn as legitimate led to his execution in 1535.
Queen Elizabeth I of England: Reign and Religious Policy
Elizabeth I was a long-ruling queen of England, governing with relative stability and prosperity for 44 years. The Elizabethan era is named for her.
Elizabeth’s reign marked a return to the policies of Henry VIII, whereby the English monarch was head of an English church. Elizabeth’s decision to adopt Protestantism earned her condemnation from the pope, who gave permission for her subjects to disobey and even kill her. This inflamed numerous plots against Elizabeth’s life.
England’s Protestant religion put it at odds with Catholic Spain. In 1588, Spain tried to conquer England and restore Catholicism within the country. England defeated the Armada and Elizabeth was victorious. A year later, in 1589, the English Navy suffered defeats in A Coruña and Lisbon during the English Counter-Armada campaign.
Miguel Servetus: Physician, Theologian, and Heretic
Miguel Servetus was a Spanish physician and theologian whose unorthodox teachings led to his condemnation as a heretic by both Protestants and Roman Catholics.
Servetus described the minor circulation of the blood, specifically pulmonary circulation, a discovery for which he would later gain international recognition in medicine.
On October 26, 1553, the Council of Geneva, Switzerland, at the behest of Calvin, sentenced Servetus to death by burning at the stake. Theologians in Calvin’s circle attempted to persuade Servetus to recant his doctrines, but he remained steadfast until the end.
Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Artist and Innovator
Leonardo da Vinci was an Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer.
Da Vinci embodies the Renaissance humanist ideal.
He is best known for his paintings, notably the *Mona Lisa* and *The Last Supper*.
Leonardo’s notebooks reveal a sharp intellect, and his contributions to art, including methods of representing space, three-dimensional objects, and the human figure, are immeasurable.
Johannes Gutenberg: The Printing Press Revolution
Johannes Gutenberg was born in Mainz, Germany, around 1397. He was an inventor and printer, credited with one of the inventions that profoundly changed the future of humanity: the printing press.
The most significant book published by Gutenberg was the *Gutenberg Bible*, completed around 1455.
His printing presses were later used to mass-produce Bibles, helping to spread the most influential book of the era.
Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried in a church in his hometown of Mainz. His invention, the printing press, was highly influential in the Protestant Reformation.