Renaissance and Reformation: Europe’s Transformative Eras

Posted on Jun 22, 2025 in Religion

A New Way of Thinking: The Renaissance

During the fifteenth century, a new way of thinking began to spread throughout Europe. It was in the sixteenth century that we can truly speak of the Renaissance, characterized by:

  • The rejection of the medieval mindset, centered on the idea of God, and the exaltation of man as the only being endowed with reason and freedom.
  • Inspiration from Greco-Roman culture. The renewed interest in the Greek language allowed the translation of great classical authors.
  • A burgeoning interest in science and technical progress, fostering a new scientific spirit.
  • The use of vernacular languages (French, Italian, Castilian, etc.).

The Expansion of Humanism

From the mid-fifteenth century, the invention of the printing press facilitated the widespread dissemination of humanist ideas. Academies became key promoters of these ideas, focusing their studies on language, philosophy, and literature. These academies were formed by scholars who exchanged ideas under economic protection (patronage).

Gutenberg’s Printing Revolution

It was the German Johannes Gutenberg who revolutionized book dissemination with his printing system through typography. In his workshop, he produced wooden molds, which were then refined with iron filings. With this system, Gutenberg produced numerous printed works, significantly impacting the spread of knowledge.

Causes of the Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was driven by several factors, including:

  • The excessive luxury of the high ecclesiastical hierarchy.
  • The perceived lack of education and moral laxity among the clergy.
  • The widespread sale of ecclesiastical offices.
  • The controversial sale of papal bulls and indulgences.

Martin Luther and the Reformation

Martin Luther began criticizing the Church in 1517 with the publication of his 95 Theses against Catholic doctrine. Luther gained significant support from German princes and nobles, eager to seize Church property. Lutheranism is based on three core principles:

  • Salvation by faith (not by good works).
  • The universal priesthood.
  • The sole authority of the Bible.

Luther’s doctrine spread rapidly throughout Germany.

Protestantism Across Europe

Calvinism

Spread from Switzerland by John Calvin, Calvinism had a more radical nature than Lutheranism. It spread throughout France (where followers were known as Huguenots) and England (as Puritans). In Scotland, John Knox founded the Presbyterian Church.

Anglicanism

This movement arose in England under King Henry VIII, when Pope Clement VII refused to grant the annulment of his marriage. Through the Act of Supremacy (1534), the king departed from Rome and declared himself supreme head of the Church of England.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

To address those who deviated from the tenets of the Church, in 1542 the Pope established the Inquisition, particularly active in Italy and Spain. The Congregation of the Index was also established, responsible for publishing a list of books deemed contrary to Catholic doctrine. Those suspected of heresy were subjected to a trial, often known as an auto-da-fé.

The Council of Trent: Catholic Reform

The ecclesiastical hierarchy initiated a movement called the Counter-Reformation, aiming to correct perceived errors and reaffirm Catholic teachings. The Council of Trent, whose sessions took place between 1545 and 1563, was attended by the highest ecclesiastical hierarchies. The Council reaffirmed the main tenets of Catholic doctrine. It also declared the Vulgate translation of St. Jerome in Latin as the only valid interpretation of the Bible. During this council, a set of significant measures was adopted:

  • Prohibiting the sale of indulgences.
  • Creating seminaries to ensure proper formation of the clergy.
  • Forcing bishops to reside in their dioceses.

Religious Orders and Counter-Reformation Impact

To disseminate the renewed spirit of the Church, the mid-sixteenth century saw the reform of many existing religious orders, such as those undertaken by Saint Teresa of Ávila (Teresa de Jesús) in the Carmelite Order. New orders were also created, most notably the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1537, which played a crucial role in education and missionary work.