Reign of Isabel II: Carlism and Regencies

1. Reign of Isabel II: Carlism and Regencies

1.1 Carlism

Against the female line of succession, Don Carlos (brother of Ferdinand VII) challenged Isabel II’s claim to the throne. This succession problem masked the true nature of Carlism: upholding traditional values against liberal ideals. It represented a rejection of modernity.

The Carlist Wars

Three armed conflicts destabilized Isabel II’s reign. The first Carlist War (1833-1840) was a civil strife, with absolutist powers and the Pope siding with the Carlists, while Britain, France, and Portugal supported Isabel II. Key figures included:

  • Espartero (defended Isabel II, ended the war, and became regent)
  • Zumalacárregui (fought against Maria Cristina and achieved numerous victories)
  • Cabrera (called “Tiger of Maestrazgo,” later recognized Alfonso XII)

The second Carlist War (1846-1849) occurred primarily in Catalonia and ended in defeat for the Carlists. The third Carlist War (1872-1876) took place during the Restoration.

Consequences of the Wars
  • The monarchy shifted towards liberalism.
  • The military gained political influence.
  • War costs led to confiscations.

1.2.A Regency of María Cristina

(Simultaneous to the First Carlist War) Ferdinand VII’s wife, María Cristina, though not a liberal herself, adopted a moderate liberal stance to protect her daughter’s throne.

Government of Cea Bermúdez

Ruled for two years, establishing the Ministry of Development and a new interim division.

Government of Martínez de la Rosa and Count Toreno

Attempted political reform with the Royal Statute (a mix of appointed and elected courts), which was rejected by liberals. Growing discontent in cities led to the burning of convents. Conflicts between the regent and liberals resulted in the sergeants’ pronouncement at La Granja, forcing María Cristina to accept the 1812 Constitution.

Progressive Stage: Mendizábal and Calatrava

The 1837 Constitution was proclaimed, introducing revolutionary measures (suppression of lordships, church secularization, press freedom). Land was divided, but often went to the highest bidder, worsening the peasants’ situation. Spain lagged in liberalism, living standards, and modernization.

Secularization and Consequences

Intended to alleviate public finances by punishing the church and creating a social base, the results were uneven. Cultivated land increased, but war spending and debt remained. The bourgeoisie benefited most, while many farmers became laborers.

The 1837 Constitution

Adopted by the progressive government, it accepted liberalism, national sovereignty, and the division of powers.

End of Progressive Government

Reforms alarmed conservatives and moderate liberals, leading to discontent and Espartero’s rise.

1.2.B The Regency of Espartero

Of humble origins, Espartero won the First Carlist War and faced opposition from Catalonia and the Basque Country. His personalized, militaristic politics led to conspiracies and the advancement of Isabel II’s majority to 13 years old.

2. Coming of Age of Isabel II

Isabel II’s 25-year reign was marked by social unrest, court scandals, and instability between moderates and liberals.

2.1 Parties

  • Moderate Party (defended shared sovereignty)
  • Progressive Party (influenced by American ideals, advocated national sovereignty and wider suffrage)
  • Democratic Party (supported universal suffrage, press freedom, and public institutions)
  • Liberal Union (formed by disgruntled moderates and progressives)

2.2 The Moderate Decade

Narváez, a moderate, faced revolutionary threats.

1845 Constitution

A pact between the two main parties, omitting national sovereignty and proclaiming Catholic unity. Senators were chosen by the Queen.

Reforms

  • Territorial organization of the state
  • Public institutions
  • Tax reform
  • Criminal Code
  • Creation of the Civil Guard
  • Public works (railroads and ports)

2.3 The Two Progressives

Economic crisis and electoral manipulation caused tensions.

2.4 The Return of the Moderates

A general strike in Barcelona and popular revolts in Madrid led to the moderates’ return.

2.5 The Liberal Union Government

O’Donnell’s government brought stability and economic growth, but his attempts at reform failed.

Foreign Policy of Prestige

Wars and military adventures appeased the army.

Domestic Problems

Limited benefits and Carlist tensions led to O’Donnell’s fall. Isabel II’s discredit, financial crisis, and economic hardship followed.