Reign of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Dynastic Conflict in 19th Century Spain
Fernando VII (1814-1833)
Absolutism Restored (1814-1820)
Wary of the liberal movement, Ferdinand VII ordained the acceptance of a new constitution, seemingly abandoning the old order. He journeyed to Madrid to formally accept this constitution and swear allegiance to the new policy framework. However, Ferdinand VII harbored fears of facing those who had resisted the French invasion and the conditions they imposed. The monarch saw the restoration of absolutism as his best chance to return to the old regime. Supporters organized, demanding the restoration of absolutism (Manifesto of the Persians) and mobilized the populace to demonstrate unconditional adherence to the monarch. Sensing the perceived weakness of the liberals, Ferdinand VII betrayed his promises. By royal decree on May 4, 1814, he annulled the Constitution of Cádiz and its laws, reinstating absolutism. Key liberal leaders were arrested or killed, while others fled.
The monarchy proceeded to restore ancient institutions, including seigniorialism and the Inquisition. This return to the old regime aligned with the broader European restoration of the old order championed by the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance. This alliance guaranteed the defense of absolutism through the principle of intervention, allowing intervention in any country to halt the progress of liberal rights and uphold absolutist rule.
Economic and Social Challenges (1815-1819)
By 1815, Ferdinand VII and his government attempted to rebuild a war-torn country by restoring the old regime. However, their governments faced significant financial losses. Material trade ceased, leading to a halt in production, and real estate went bankrupt due to a lack of economic resources. Farmers stopped paying stately income, and protests erupted against attempts to reinstate old tributes. A burgeoning urban bourgeoisie demanded a return to constitutional rule. Ferdinand’s governments proved incapable of addressing these problems, managing the estates, or dealing with the growing independence movements. Liberal military uprisings in cities and rural riots demonstrated the widespread discontent and the bankruptcy of the absolute monarchy. Repression remained the monarchy’s sole response to social and political demands.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
On January 1, 1820, Colonel Rafael del Riego, leading a company of troops, rebelled and proclaimed the Constitution of 1812. He then marched through Andalusia. The army’s passivity, combined with the actions of liberal groups, the neutrality of cities, and peasant unrest, forced King Ferdinand VII to accept the constitution. A new government was immediately formed, proclaiming an amnesty and calling for elections to the Cortes.
The elections resulted in a majority of liberal deputies, who quickly initiated significant legislation. They restored a large part of the Cádiz reforms, including freedom of industry, the abolition of guilds, and the suppression of seigniorialism. They decreased the tithe and enacted various other reforms. They promoted the liberation of industry and trade, advocating for the free movement of goods and strengthening the bourgeoisie. They began the political and administrative modernization of the country, forming elective municipalities and county councils, and rebuilding the National Militia, a volunteer armed body composed of the urban middle classes, to defend the new order and reforms.
These reforms faced opposition from the monarchy. While Ferdinand VII had accepted the new regime under duress, he paralyzed what few laws he could, exercising his right of veto and conspiring against the government, seeking to regain absolute power.
The new measures also caused discontent among some peasants. While the jurisdictional seigniorialism was abolished, access to land was not facilitated. Former masters became the new owners, and peasants could be expelled from the land if they failed to pay. A substantial reduction in taxes and the monetization of revenues forced peasants to obtain money by selling products, which proved difficult to do at a profitable price, making it challenging to pay the necessary contributions.
The traditional nobility and the church, harmed by the suppression of the tithe and the sale of monastic properties, fueled the revolt against the Triennium’s rulers. By 1822, absolutist volunteers reached an estimated 280,000.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The Holy Alliance, in response to Ferdinand VII’s requests, authorized French intervention in Spain, effectively ending the liberal Triennium. In April 1823, 100,000 French soldiers, known as the “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis,” entered Spain to restore the absolute monarch. The restored powers deemed some reforms necessary to address the volatile situation and reorganize the administration.
A fierce repression against liberals followed, with many exiled and supporters of liberal ideas persecuted. The economic problems, aggravated by the permanent loss of the American colonies, caused great concern. The loss forced stricter control of public expenditure, making it impossible to increase revenue without affecting the tax privileges of the nobility. By 1825, burdened by economic problems, the king sought the cooperation of the moderate liberal faction.
Dynastic Conflict (1830-1833)
The 1830 birth of Ferdinand’s daughter, Isabella, seemed to ensure the Bourbon continuity but sparked a significant succession conflict. Salic Law barred women from the throne. However, influenced by his wife Maria Cristina, Ferdinand repealed the law through the Pragmatic Sanction.
The more conservative absolutists (Carlists) refused to accept this change. They pushed for the seriously ill Ferdinand to reinstate the Salic Law, supporting his brother, Carlos Maria Isidro, as the rightful heir.
These confrontations highlighted the struggle between opposing models: the absolutists supporting Carlos (and the old regime) and Maria Cristina, who realized that securing the throne for her daughter required seeking support from those closer to liberalism. As regent during the king’s illness, she formed a new reformist government. Ferdinand died in 1833, reaffirming his will, naming his three-year-old daughter Isabella as his heir and Maria Cristina as regent. On that day, Carlos proclaimed himself king, initiating an absolutist uprising in northern Spain and beginning the First Carlist War.