Reign of Alfonso XIII: Modernization, Crisis, and Dictatorship
ITEM 16: Reign of Alfonso XIII
1 – Introduction
In the early twentieth century, the shock of the disaster of ’98 forced the dynastic parties (Conservatives and Liberals) to initiate political reform. However, Spanish society was entering a period of progressive economic development and social modernization, conditioned by urbanization, the rise of the middle classes, the emergence of mass media, and the prominence of intellectuals. The impact of World War I exacerbated political and social problems. Cabinet instability, the growing divide between the courts and government, heightened social tensions, and the difficulties of the war in Morocco led to a military dictatorship in September 1923.
2 – Development
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne, starting the second phase of the Restoration, which aimed to modernize the political system. However, the fear of embracing genuine democratic participation perpetuated the Turno system, hindering thorough reform and leading to its eventual bankruptcy.
2.1 – The Regeneration
The loss of Spanish colonies in 1898 plunged the country into a serious crisis. The early years of Alfonso XIII’s reign were marked by Regenerationism, an attempt to reform the Restoration System from within. The basic principles, formulated by Joaquín Costa (1846-1911), centered on the development of education and Europeanization. Recent governments of the regency of Maria Cristina and the reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931) followed this path. However, the new century coincided with a leadership crisis in the dynastic parties. Key figures were Revisionists Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal). The first manifestation of policy revision was Maura’s conservative government’s “revolution from above” (1907-1909). In 1908, the National Welfare Institute, the precursor to social security, was created. The Electoral Reform Act of 1907 aimed to end corruption and democratize the political system, making electoral fraud more difficult. The Liberal Party, under Canalejas, undertook far-reaching political regeneration between 1910-1912, including the Padlock Law (limiting the creation of new religious buildings) and the Recruitment Act (1912), which eliminated the fee for military service. These reforms were cut short by Canalejas’s assassination in 1912.
2.2 – Morocco’s War and the Tragic Week in Barcelona
After the disaster of ’98, Spanish foreign policy focused on North Africa, as imperialist powers finalized the colonial division of the continent. In 1906, the Algeciras Conference established a Franco-Spanish protectorate in Morocco, with Spain receiving the Rif and an enclave on the Atlantic coast. The Spanish presence in the Rif led to continuous attacks by the Riffians. In 1909, the defeat at the Barranco del Lobo occurred. Maura ordered the mobilization of reservists, including young Catalan soldiers, leading to a general insurrection in Barcelona. Subsequently, anarchist Francisco Ferrer i Guardia was executed without evidence as the instigator, sparking international protests and Maura’s resignation. The Tragic Week and Canalejas’s murder (1912) opened a new period (1912-1923) marked by the crisis of the dynastic parties and the Restoration System. Simultaneously, political opposition strengthened, with parties like the Republican Party and Melquiades Álvarez’s Reform Party gaining traction. Workers’ parties, PSOE and Anarchists, also continued to develop. Anarchists organized their union, the CNT, in 1910. Nationalist parties also emerged, notably the Catalan Regionalist League led by F. Cambó. Basque nationalism moderated its radical and anti-Spanish views from the Sabino Arana era.
2.3 – World War I and the Crisis of 1917
In 1913, Alfonso XIII appointed conservative Eduardo Dato as Prime Minister, who faced the consequences of World War I (1914-1918). Spain became a supplier of raw materials and food to the warring nations, boosting exports and improving the trade balance. However, increased external demand caused a rise in prices and wages. The lower classes lost purchasing power, leading to discontent and social unrest (strikes). World War I accentuated social differences and created a climate of tension that erupted in 1917 in the form of public outcry against the government, involving parties outside the Turno system, the military, and labor organizations. Thus, 1917 witnessed a profound crisis with three aspects:
- Military Crisis: The Spanish army had an excessive number of officers relative to soldiers. Promotions based on war merit favored African military personnel over peninsular ones, causing discontent. Dissension existed within the army as only higher ranks enjoyed a good standard of living. This discontent led to the formation of Juntas demanding changes in the promotion system (strict seniority) and improved economic conditions. Alfonso XIII supported this movement as the army was the best defense against political opposition to the Restoration System.
- Political Crisis: The government closed the Cortes and imposed press censorship. The response was the Parliamentary Assembly, an alternative parliament meeting in Barcelona, initiated by Cambó and the Regionalist League, seeking to unite all political opposition to the Restoration System. The Assembly could have been a bloodless political revolution but failed due to internal differences, the king and army’s opposition, and bourgeois groups’ fear of a general strike.
- Social Crisis: Triggered by falling wages while companies accumulated huge profits. In 1916, the CNT and UGT agreed to call a general strike unless the government intervened to contain prices. A general strike was eventually called in 1917. The repressive government reacted by sending the army to suppress the movement. The events of 1917 did not end the Restoration’s political system, but the regime entered a period of progressive decay.
2.4 – System Decomposition (1918-1923)
Between 1918 and 1923, the country experienced numerous government changes. Despite resorting to electoral fraud, no dynastic party achieved a parliamentary majority, leading to constant parliamentary closures. The Restoration System was fatally wounded. The end of World War I also ended the favorable economic situation for Spain, increasing social tensions, union membership, peasant revolts in Andalusia, and strikes in industrial regions. Between 1919 and 1922, Spain lived under a permanent state of exception with suspended constitutional guarantees. This situation was compounded by the war in Morocco, a persistent problem in Spanish political life. The protectorate in Morocco was an area of low economic value, populated by warlike tribes. In 1921, General Silvestre launched a campaign to extend Spanish control around Melilla. Abd el-Krim’s tribes launched a surprise attack at Annual, causing significant losses to the Spanish army, with 13,000 casualties.
3 – Conclusions
The Annual disaster had a devastating impact on public opinion, turning it against the war. Large protests erupted across the country, and Republicans and Socialists demanded withdrawal from Morocco. Public pressure led to the formation of a military commission to investigate the events. The resulting Picasso dossier revealed massive irregularities, corruption, and inefficiency in the Spanish army stationed in Africa. However, no political or criminal responsibilities were assumed. Before the congressional committee responsible for the study could issue its opinion, General Primo de Rivera staged a coup and established a military dictatorship.