Regenerationism, Political Upheaval, and the Rise of the Second Spanish Republic
Tema 9: Regenerationism and Policy Review
The Disaster of ’98 highlighted the gulf between the real Spain and Spain’s politics. This gave rise to the Regenerationist movement, which aimed for total change in the country at all levels. Maura attempted to prevent change from below. This movement was embodied in a series of intellectual movements such as the Generation of ’98 and the Institution of Free Enseñanza.
Political Landscape
- Conservative Party: Maura and Dato
- Liberal Side: Romanones
In Catalonia, Prat founded the Lliga Regionalista. Sabino Arana created the PNV. Opposition groups included Republican parties, the PSOE, CNT, and the rising UGT. Alfonso XIII ascended the throne in 1902. Alternating Conservative and Liberal governments failed to initiate reforms until the second government of Maura.
Alfonso XIII: 1907-1909, Maura
Maura aimed to attract support from peripheral nationalist associations. He passed a law granting greater autonomy to interprovincial bodies and pleased the Lliga, but the oligarchy prevented its approval. The need to send troops to Melilla to defend against attacks from the Rif led the government to call up reservists from the most contentious area of the country, Catalonia. This sparked a general strike and insurrection in Barcelona.
Tragic Week
Known as the Tragic Week, the uprising began with the burning of churches and convents. Republicans, socialists, and anarchists were unable to agree on a course of action and were easily controlled by the army. The final result was death, burned buildings, and five executions. Maura resigned and was replaced by Canalejas.
Canalejas 1909-1912
Canalejas, assassinated by an anarchist in 1912, attempted to democratize the regime, the last serious Regenerationist endeavor. He introduced conscription, allowing for wartime service to be substituted with other forms of service. He also created the Padlock Law, prohibiting the opening of new religious orders and convents. His death made the continuation of this political approach impossible.
Monarchy in Crisis
Dato and Romanones were unable to halt the escalating crisis. The outbreak of World War I in 1914, during which Spain declared neutrality, masked the crisis by dramatically increasing exports. However, the eventual destruction caused by the war and the increase in production costs led to an economic crisis in 1917. This crisis manifested on three fronts:
Threefold Crisis
- Military Crisis: Military officers serving in Morocco (Africanists) rose quickly through the ranks based on merit. Peninsular officers felt threatened by this and created boards to defend their interests. These boards held significant power and were based in Barcelona.
- Parliamentary Crisis: Amidst the military crisis, a parliamentary crisis erupted. Opposition parties demanded the opening of the courts, and the Lliga called a meeting of parliamentarians in Barcelona, including Republicans and Socialists. The meeting ultimately broke down.
- Labor Crisis: A strike by tram and railroad workers, fueled by government actions, escalated tensions. Anarchists joined the strike, prompting the government to call in the army, which sided with the strikers. The Catalan parliament also supported the workers.
Annual: 1921
France pressured Spain to take control of the Rif region in Morocco, a mountainous and difficult-to-control area with little economic value. France threatened to revise existing treaties if Spain failed to secure the region. The Spanish military, ill-prepared and poorly positioned, suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Riffians in what became known as the Annual Disaster. The defeat rested heavily on the shoulders of politicians and the army.
Tema 10: Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Disaster of Annual, the ineffectiveness of both Conservative and Liberal parties, the bourgeoisie’s fear of a working-class uprising, the rise of Basque and Catalan nationalism, and the influence of Mussolini’s rise to power in Italy all contributed to King Alfonso XIII’s decision to support a military coup led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923.
The Coup
Primo de Rivera’s coup d’état was met with inaction from the King, who effectively allowed the government to fall. Primo de Rivera formed a new government, regularizing the coup. The constitution was suspended, and the Cortes (parliament) was dissolved. The coup received widespread acceptance, with only the PSOE and the Lliga in opposition.
Primo de Rivera’s Policies
Primo de Rivera’s initial actions targeted traditional political parties. He dismissed provincial governors and replaced them with military personnel. He permitted the creation of a single political party, the Patriotic Union, which claimed to be neither right-wing nor left-wing. Elections were never held during his rule.
Opposition and the Fall of the Monarchy
Intellectuals and students began to criticize the regime. The PSOE, UGT, and student groups initiated protests. The economic crisis of 1929 further fueled opposition, pushing workers and the bourgeoisie into opposition. Repression and the hardening of the regime led the King to pressure Primo de Rivera, who resigned in 1930.
General Berenguer and the”Soft Dictatorshi”
General Dámaso Berenguer was appointed president, ushering in a period known as the “soft dictatorship.” Opposition groups had already united under the Pact of San Sebastian, aiming to overthrow the monarchy. Berenguer attempted to stabilize the situation by announcing municipal elections, hoping for a monarchist victory. However, Republicans swept the elections in major cities. The day after the elections, on April 14, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, and King Alfonso XIII fled Spain.
Tema 11: The Constitution of 1931 and the Progressive Biennium
The Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931, met with popular enthusiasm and hopes for social change. However, while political power shifted, economic power remained largely unchanged. The Republic can be divided into three stages: the Reformist Biennium, the Two Black Years, and the Popular Front.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
The provisional government faced immediate challenges:
- Catalan Autonomy: Francesc Macià proclaimed a Catalan state. After negotiations, the central government granted autonomy to Catalonia.
- Anticlericalism: Anti-clerical sentiment led to the burning of convents in Madrid.
- Reforms: The provisional government initiated agricultural and military reforms, angering landowners and the military.
- Social Unrest: Strikes and clashes erupted between employers and workers.
Constitution of 1931
Elections brought a Republican-Socialist coalition to power. The Constitution of 1931 was approved, establishing a secular state, legalizing divorce, and granting women the right to vote. Prime Minister Manuel Azaña’s government faced numerous challenges:
- Economic Crisis: The government inherited a massive public debt from the dictatorship and the Great Depression.
- Church Reforms: Decrees were issued to reduce the Church’s power and privileges.
- Agrarian Reform: The Land Reform Law aimed to redistribute land to peasants, but its implementation was largely a failure.
- Military Reforms: Azaña’s military reforms, intended to modernize the army, were met with resistance from within the military.
Growing Unrest
General José Sanjurjo’s attempted coup in 1932 failed due to lack of support. However, labor unrest, fueled by the anarchist CNT, continued to grow. Strikes and demonstrations culminated in the events of Castillejo and Casas Viejas, leading to Azaña’s resignation. New elections were called.
The Two Black Years (1933-1935)
The Radical Republican Party, led by Alejandro Lerroux, won the 1933 elections with the support of the right-wing CEDA (Spanish Catholic Right). This caused discomfort on the left, as the CEDA was seen as anti-republican. Lerroux’s government slowed down reforms, granted amnesty to those involved in Sanjurjo’s coup, and returned privileges to the Church.
October 1934 Revolution
In October 1934, Lerroux lost parliamentary support and was forced to include CEDA ministers in his government. This triggered uprisings across Spain. In Madrid, the uprising was quickly crushed. In Catalonia, the Catalan government declared independence but was swiftly defeated. In Asturias, miners took control of the region. General Francisco Franco was given full authority to suppress the Asturian rebellion, brutally crushing the resistance.
Scandal and Resignation
The brutal repression of the Asturian miners and a subsequent financial scandal forced Lerroux to resign.
The Popular Front (1936)
In response to the rise of fascism, left-wing parties, unions, and other organizations formed the Popular Front. The Popular Front won the 1936 elections, and Azaña was named president. The right refused to accept the results, and political violence escalated. The Popular Front government restored autonomy to Catalonia, further angering the right. These tensions would ultimately culminate in the Spanish Civil War in July 1936.