Reformation and Counter-Reformation: Religious Upheaval
Topic 3: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Crisis in Medieval Religion
The 15th century saw a shift in religious focus towards the individual, clashing with established social and ecclesiastical structures. This led to the rise of heresies like German Christian Socialism and the Waldenses in France, fueled by social unrest and apocalyptic beliefs.
The Church, weakened by a discredited Papacy and poorly educated clergy, struggled to address these concerns.
New Forms of Spirituality: Modern Devotion and Erasmus
Dissatisfaction with the Church’s wealth and power gave rise to movements like Christian Socialism, echoing the Bohemian Brothers and Waldenses. Humanist intellectuals, emphasizing individual values and critical thinking, further prepared the ground for reform. Erasmus advocated for theological rationalism, challenging traditional religious authority.
Luther and the Empire
Germany’s religious fervor, combined with social instability and weak governance, created fertile ground for Luther’s ideas. His challenge to indulgences and Papal authority led to a break with Rome and the formation of a new church.
Break with Rome: Impact and Expansion
Luther’s doctrines spread rapidly, leading to conflicts and the rise of Anabaptism, a radical offshoot of the Reformation. The Swiss Reformation, led by Zwingli, differed from Luther’s in both religious and political aspects.
Calvin and the Second Phase of Reformation
Calvin emphasized predestination and divine choice, advocating for a theocratic government in Geneva. Calvinism spread across Europe, facing government opposition in many regions.
Henry VIII’s Divorce and Schism
The English Reformation was driven by Henry VIII’s desire for a divorce and his assertion of royal supremacy over the Church. This led to the formation of the Anglican Church.
Thomas Cranmer and the English Reformation
Despite the break with Rome, England remained largely Catholic. The Act of Supremacy in 1532 legalized the Anglican Church, attempting to maintain Catholic doctrine without Papal authority.
The Counter-Reformation
Catholic Church’s Response
The Catholic Church responded to the Reformation with a period of renewal and reform. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) addressed doctrinal issues, reaffirmed Papal authority, and initiated reforms to address corruption.
Council of Trent: Stages and Conclusions
The Council, convened in three periods, affirmed Catholic orthodoxy, defined the sacraments, and emphasized the importance of good works. It also led to a more combative stance against Protestantism.
Society of Jesus and Discalced Orders
The Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, became a key instrument of the Counter-Reformation. Other new orders, like the Discalced Carmelites of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross, also emerged during this period.