Qualitative Data Collection Methods in Applied Linguistics
Qualitative Data Collection
Characteristics of Qualitative Data
- Tends to be extensive and unfocused, with a heterogeneous nature.
- No explicit restrictions on what constitutes data.
- Less systematic and standardized data collection compared to quantitative research.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Sampling
Quantitative Sampling
Aims for straightforwardness and representativeness of the respondent sample or experience distribution within the population.
Qualitative Sampling
Focuses on describing, understanding, and clarifying human experiences. The sample should provide rich and varied insights into the phenomenon under investigation.
Iteration and Saturation
Iteration: Cyclical process of moving between data collection and analysis to fill gaps, expand descriptions, or challenge them.
Saturation: The point where additional data no longer develops concepts but repeats previous findings.
Sampling Strategies for Quick Saturation
- Homogeneous Sampling: Selecting participants from a subgroup with shared experiences relevant to the study.
- Typical Sampling: Selecting participants with typical experiences related to the research focus.
- Criterion Sampling: Selecting participants who meet specific predetermined criteria.
Strategies for Exploring Response Range
- Maximum Variation Sampling: Selecting cases with diverse experiences.
- Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling: Selecting the most extreme cases.
- Critical Case Sampling: Targeting cases with dramatic or full representation of the phenomenon.
Practical Sampling Strategies
- Snowball or Chain Sampling: Key respondents recruit further participants with similar characteristics.
- Opportunistic Sampling: Including valuable respondents encountered during fieldwork.
- Convenience Sampling: Using available participants (least desirable but practical).
Qualitative Procedures
Ethnography, Interviews, Case Studies, Focus Groups, Diary Studies, Introspection
Ethnography
Definition: A qualitative method originating in cultural anthropology, aiming to describe and analyze practices and beliefs of cultures (ethnic groups, organizations, communities).
Techniques: Participant/non-participant observation, interviewing, ethnographer’s diary.
Main Features: Focus on participant meaning, prolonged engagement in natural settings, emergent nature.
Phases: Entry, familiarization, immersion, closure.
Strengths: Exploring uncharted territories, understanding social processes from participants’ perspectives, generating initial hypotheses.
Weaknesses: Time-consuming, insider/outsider dilemma, difficulty reporting results to external audiences.
Interviews
Types: Single-session, multiple-session.
Characteristics of a Good Interview: Natural flow, rich in details.
Interviewer Advice: Active listening, clear questions, avoiding leading cues, enjoying the process.
Ending an Interview: Summarizing main points, allowing respondent’s final comments.
Question Types: Initial rapport-building questions, content questions, probes, closing questions.
Focus Groups
Definition: A qualitative procedure involving a group discussion with 6-12 members, moderated by an interviewer.
Composition: Homogeneous samples preferred for better group dynamics.
Number of Groups: 4-5 groups recommended for adequate data.
Moderator’s Role: Facilitating discussion, ensuring participation, encouraging critical thinking, concluding the session.
Strengths: Versatility, enjoyable for participants, rich data.
Weaknesses: Preparation required, moderator multitasking, improvisation needed, potential for social desirability bias and dominant participants, transcription challenges.
Introspective Methods
Definition: Qualitative procedures for obtaining information about unobservable mental processes (thoughts, feelings, motives).
Techniques: Think-aloud, retrospective interview.
Think-Aloud Technique
Participants verbalize their thoughts while performing a task. Requires training and can interfere with task performance.
Retrospective Interview (Stimulated Recall)
Respondents verbalize thoughts after completing a task, aided by stimuli (e.g., video). Recommendations for improving data quality include minimizing time lapse, providing rich contextual information, encouraging direct recall, avoiding foreknowledge of the interview, and piloting the procedure.
Strengths: Access to mental processes, versatility.
Weaknesses: Inaccessibility of unconscious processes, complexity of conscious processes, social desirability bias, information loss in stimulated recall, reactive effects.
Case Studies
Definition: A qualitative procedure involving in-depth study of a single case (person, program, institution, organization, community).
Types: Intrinsic (understanding the case itself), instrumental (understanding something else), multiple/collective (studying several cases jointly).
Strengths: Thick description, rich insights, completeness, depth of analysis, readability, hypothesis generation.
Weaknesses: Limitations of single-case studies.
Diary Studies
Definition: Participants keep regular records of aspects of their daily lives.
Use in Applied Linguistics: Documenting language learning experiences, teacher education programs.
Strengths: Unobtrusive, participant involvement, capturing temporal variation, providing background information.
Weaknesses: Requires literacy and writing comfort, demanding on participants, potential for forgetfulness, fatigue, and variation in entry quality.
Research Journals: Diaries kept by researchers during a project, documenting the research process.