Psychology’s Origins: Key Schools and Influential Thinkers
Early Foundations of Psychology
The term “Psychology” originates from the Greek word Psyche, meaning spirit, soul, or mind. Initially defined as the “study of the soul,” its scientific definition evolved significantly, moving away from the intangible concept of the soul.
Wilhelm Wundt and Experimental Psychology
Modern psychology as a science was formally established in 1879 with Wilhelm Wundt’s creation of the first Experimental Psychology Laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt, originally a physiologist, bridged philosophy and psychology. While philosophers in the 18th century were already concerned with the functioning of the mind, Wundt’s laboratory practices laid the groundwork for a scientific discipline. In 1881, he published his studies in Philosophical Studies. His work involved practical measurements to determine sensory and mental phenomena, particularly focusing on thresholds.
- Gustav Fechner conducted the first experiments on thresholds.
Thresholds of Perception
Wundt and his contemporaries identified different types of thresholds:
- Minimum Threshold: The smallest detectable stimulus.
- Maximum Threshold: The largest detectable stimulus.
- Differential Threshold: The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Wundt’s Introspection and Cultural Psychology
Wundt was influenced by English philosophy, especially empiricism and associationist ideas. He theorized that when perceiving an object (e.g., its color, shape), the mind constructs the complete image. He attempted to discover basic feelings through the introspection method, where trained individuals reported their conscious experiences. This method, however, proved limited, leading him to study comparative anthropology.
Wundt’s later work included the book Psychology of Peoples (Völkerpsychologie).
Edward Titchener and Structuralism
A prominent disciple of Wundt, Edward Titchener, founded the associationist school in the USA, which became a significant force in the development of psychology.
Russian Reflexology: The Dawn of Behavioral Study
This school of thought emerged with key figures such as Ivan Sechenov (founder), Ivan Pavlov (most important), and Vladimir Bechterew. They posited that behavior is primarily based on reflexes, suggesting that we learn everything we do through associations with reflex actions, rather than through free will.
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his studies on animal digestion. He conducted experiments in “towers of silence” where all stimuli for the dogs were meticulously controlled. His most famous work is the salivation reflex experiment, which led to the discovery of classical conditioning. He studied:
- The number of repetitions required for conditioning.
- The process of extinction of conditioning, noting its difficulty to completely eliminate.
- The phenomenon of spontaneous recovery, where a conditioned response can return quickly under the same conditions.
Cases of learned helplessness were also demonstrated through his work.
Vladimir Bechterew’s Contributions
Vladimir Bechterew worked with cats, focusing on conditioned muscle reflexes, often observing negative responses. His experiments highlighted avoidance behavior, demonstrating that pain-related learning occurs earlier and is more lasting. He suggested two ways to reverse such conditioning: 1) forced exposure, and 2) introducing another cat (implying social learning or modeling).
Behaviorism: Focus on Observable Conduct
Emerging in the second decade of the 20th century (around 1915) in Chicago, Behaviorism revolutionized psychology.
Core Principles of Behaviorism
John B. Watson, the founder, famously wrote Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. Precursors included Edward Thorndike, with B.F. Skinner becoming its maximum exponent. Mary Cover Jones is recognized as the first behavioral therapist.
Behaviorism asserts that if psychology aims to be a science, it must limit its study to observable phenomena. It must be confined to observable behavior, as this is the only verifiable aspect, while concepts like mind and consciousness are considered intangible and thus outside the scope of scientific study.
John B. Watson and Little Albert
Behaviorism drew heavily on the Russian model, focusing on similar subjects like learning and conditioning. Watson particularly emphasized working with infants. In a famous experiment, he conditioned a baby (Little Albert) to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud gong. The baby developed a phobia, screaming upon seeing the rat. Behaviorists then applied their principles to eliminate phobias. Mary Cover Jones pioneered counterconditioning to eliminate maladaptive conditioning. This therapy involved gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus, aiming to replace the disproportionate fear response with a more adaptive one.
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike published the Law of Effect, which states that actions followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those that do not generate a positive impact are less likely to be repeated.
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner further developed these ideas, referring to the process as the ABC (Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence) of operant conditioning. He contrasted operant conditioning with respondent (classical) conditioning (Pavlov).
His famous Skinner Box experiment involved a rat in a box with a lever and a food dispenser. Initially, the rat might randomly press the lever, receive cheese, and then learn to associate the lever press with food. Skinner observed how many times the behavior had to be reinforced. Skinner suggested that human behavior is similarly shaped by consequences, drawing parallels to activities like gambling.