Psychology Fundamentals: Personality Theories and Research
Posted on Mar 4, 2026 in Nursing
Personality Theories
I. Personality: Core Questions
- Who are you?
- Why have you become the way you are?
- How does personality affect your behaviors?
II. Three Major Perspectives
| Approach | Core Focus |
|---|
| Trait | Stable, measurable dimensions of personality |
| Psychodynamic | Unconscious drives and conflicts |
| Social-Cognitive | Interaction of cognition, environment, and self-efficacy |
III. Trait Approach: The Big Five
- Trait: A consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving with a biological basis.
- Traits are continuous dimensions shared by all people.
A. Big Five Dimensions
| Dimension | Core Meaning | High ↔ Low |
|---|
| Openness | Preference for novelty | Creative ↔ Unimaginative |
| Conscientiousness | Self-regulation, impulse control | Deliberate ↔ Spontaneous |
| Extraversion | Quantity/intensity of engagement | Gregarious ↔ Reserved |
| Agreeableness | Concern for cooperation, social harmony | Trusting ↔ Skeptical |
| Neuroticism | Tendency toward negative affect | Calm ↔ Anxious |
B. Empirical Implications
- Academic: Conscientiousness ≈ 4× the effect of all other traits combined.
- Job: Conscientiousness is the strongest positive predictor across occupations.
- Health: High Conscientiousness correlates with a longer life.
- Nursing: Low Neuroticism and high Extraversion correlate with better stress tolerance.
C. Origins and Development
- Genetic evidence from twin studies.
- Age trends:
- Increase in Openness, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness.
- Decrease in Extraversion and Neuroticism.
Psychodynamic and Social-Cognitive Perspectives
IV. Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)
A. Foundational Assumptions
- Personality is driven by unconscious needs and conflicts.
- Levels of awareness: Conscious, Pre-conscious, and Unconscious.
B. Structural Model
| Structure | Emergence | Governing Principle | Main Functions |
|---|
| Id | Birth | Pleasure principle | Primitive, selfish |
| Ego | 6–8 months | Reality principle | Logical, rational |
| Superego | 3–5 years | Moral principle | Moralistic, strives for perfection |
C. Defense Mechanisms
| Mechanism | Definition | Example |
|---|
| Repression | Removal of threatening material from awareness | Trauma survivor recalling abusive childhood |
| Denial | Refusal to acknowledge an external threat | Smoker claiming “I’m fine” |
| Reaction Formation | Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse | Hostile officer praising a hated supervisor |
| Projection | Attributing unacceptable impulses to others | Patient accusing nurse of disliking them |
| Regression | Retreating to an earlier developmental stage | Adult acting childlike after an accident |
| Rationalization | Offering logical excuses to conceal motives | Claiming a fired job “wasn’t good anyway” |
| Displacement | Shifting emotional response to a safer target | Teacher venting anger at students after a pay cut |
V. Social-Cognitive Approach: Self-Efficacy
A. Core Concept (Bandura)
- Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s capability to execute a specific task.
B. Four Sources
- Mastery Experiences: Past successes or failures.
- Vicarious Experiences: Observing others succeed.
- Social Persuasion: Encouragement and feedback.
- Emotional States: Interpretation of physiological arousal.
C. Impact on Behavior
- Choice of Activities: High self-efficacy leads to tackling challenging tasks.
- Effort Expenditure: Greater effort under high self-efficacy.
- Persistence: Sustained effort despite setbacks.
- Emotional Reactions: Less anxiety, more confidence.
- Performance Outcomes: Better results.
Psychological Research Methods
VI. What Is Psychology?
- The scientific study of the human mind, behaviors, and mental processes.
- Key Attributes: Systematic, objective, and well-controlled investigations.
VII. Research Methods
| Section | Focus |
|---|
| A. | Basic Concepts |
| B. | Descriptive Studies |
| C. | Correlational Studies |
| D. | Experimental Studies |
VIII. Basic Concepts: The Scientific Cycle
- Research Question
- Literature Review: PsyArticles, ProQuest, Google Scholar
- Hypothesis: A testable prediction
- Sampling: Random, systematic, or convenience
- Design the Study: Descriptive, correlational, or experimental
- Conduct the Study: Collect data
- Analyze the Data: Statistical procedures
- Report the Results: Publish
IX. Descriptive Studies
A. Observational Studies
| Type | Setting | Key Feature |
|---|
| Naturalistic | Participants’ environment | Non-intrusive, ecological validity |
| Laboratory | Controlled lab | Higher control, may affect behavior |
B. Case Studies
- Intensive examination of an unusual individual.
C. Self-Reports
- Surveys and structured interviews.
Correlational and Experimental Studies
X. Correlational Studies
A. Core Concepts
- Correlation: Systematic co-variation of two variables.
- Statistical Index: Pearson’s r (range –1 to +1).
- Positive (r > 0); Negative (r < 0).
- Strength: > 0.5 = moderate; near 0 = weak.
B. Misconception: Correlation ≠ Causation
- A causes B.
- B causes A.
- Third variable C drives both.
XI. Experimental Studies
A. Fundamental Structure
| Component | Definition |
|---|
| Independent (IV) | Factor the researcher manipulates |
| Dependent (DV) | Outcome measured |
| Confounding | Uncontrolled factors that may contaminate results |
| Control Variables | Variables deliberately held constant |
| Experimental Group | Receives the IV manipulation |
| Control Group | Receives no manipulation (or a neutral one) |
| Random Assignment | Participants allocated to groups to even out differences |
XII. Connecting Theories and Research Design
| Personality Lens | Core Idea | Research Method | Evidence Gathering |
|---|
| Trait | Stable dimensions | Correlational | Surveys → compute Pearson’s r |
| Psychodynamic | Unconscious drives | Case study | Intensive observation, interviews |
| Social-Cognitive | Beliefs drive outcomes | Experimental | Randomized groups → IV intervention |
XIII. Nursing Implications
- Screening and Placement: Match high Conscientiousness/low Neuroticism nurses to high-stress units.
- Understanding Resistance: Recognize defense mechanisms in patients and staff.
- Boosting Outcomes: Apply self-efficacy strategies to improve patient recovery.
XIV. Core Takeaways
- Traits: Measurable and moderately plastic.
- Psychodynamic: Defense mechanisms significantly affect interactions.
- Self-efficacy: A modifiable target for behavioral change.
- Research: Effective psychology blends descriptive, correlational, and experimental methods.
