Psychology Defined: History and Theories
What is Psychology?
Psychology is the science that studies the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. This includes internal processes of individuals and the influences that occur in their physical and social environment. The reasons for studying human actions include understanding the reasoning of the mind, mental disorders, and behavior.
Aristotle and the Psyche
Aristotle proposed a unity between body and soul (psyche), distinguishing two parts:
- The higher part, called Nous (reasoning and thinking).
- The lower part, the Alma (matter, flesh), which corresponds to the emotional, cognitive, and affective aspects.
The aspects of the psyche form a whole but have different functions. According to Aristotle, cognitive functions range from perception to reason, while motivational functions encompass the range from need to desire.
Origin of the Term ‘Psychology’
The first person to use the word ‘psychology’ was the academic Marko Marulić. He studied classical languages and philosophy before retiring to a religious life. He employed the term before 1506.
Psychology with Adjectives
It is common to read or hear the word ‘psychology’ followed by an adjective, such as social psychology, developmental psychology, behavioral psychology, or Gestalt psychology. Some of these adjectives define a specific theoretical approach, framework, or field of practice (e.g., social psychology).
Areas of Study and Practice
General psychology deals with broad problems in psychology, providing an overview of the objects of study and different methodological approaches without specific in-depth focus. Examples of fields of practice include social psychology, clinical psychology, psychotherapy, and personality psychology.
Key areas of study in psychology include:
- Structuralism
- Psychoanalysis
- Cognitivism
- Behaviorism
Origins and Influences
Psychology originated from thematic studies, first from the humanities (philosophy, history, art), then from the social sciences (economics, politics, sociology), and later from experimental biology and philosophy.
Personality Theories
Allport’s Personality Theory
According to Allport, personality is a theoretical construct, an attempt to explain abstraction from various facets of the discipline. It is polysemous and can only be understood according to the theoretical context in which it is mentioned. Allport described over 50 meanings for the word ‘personality’ and other related terms like self, person, and character.
Allport’s traits:
- Common traits
- Individual traits (cardinal, central, secondary)
Cattell’s Personality Theory
Cattell maintained that personality is what allows us to predict what someone will do in a particular situation. The trait is the fundamental unit of analysis. According to Cattell, traits can be classified by their mode of expression:
- Attitudinal or Cognitive: The set of resources an individual has to face situations and solve problems.
- Temperament: Highlights the peculiar way an individual behaves.
- Dynamic: The motivational basis.
Functions of the Psyche
Functions of the psyche include:
- Cognitive functions: Covering the range from perception to reason.
- Motivational functions: Encompassing the range from need to desire.
Behaviorism
Behavior is the central focus of the behaviorist psychological program. For behaviorism, human behavior in all its facets is learned. Behavior is considered a privileged object of study because it can be observed, measured, and controlled. Behaviorism posits an objective and experimental psychology.
Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
While Freud did not specifically address the concept of personality in the same way as trait theorists, his ideas on child development are crucial for explaining adult character. In childhood, humans go through different stages of development:
- Oral Stage: The erogenous zone is the mouth, and activities related to sucking and feeding are included in this stage of satisfaction.
- Anal Stage: Satisfaction is centered in the anal area and functions related to the expulsion and retention of feces.
- Phallic Stage: The most rewarding area is the genitals, and stimulation is the main pleasure center.
- Genital Stage: This is the adult psychosexual stage, characterized by the opportunity to experience the sensations generated in sexual relations and feelings.