Psychological Research Methods and Social History
Psychological Research Methods
Research methods are systematic techniques used by psychologists to collect, study, and analyze information about human behavior and social phenomena. The major research methods include descriptive, experimental, correlational, and archival methods.
1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is used to describe and record behavior as it naturally occurs. It does not necessarily establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
a. Case Study
A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, event, organization, or situation.
Example: A psychologist conducts a detailed study of an individual who has experienced a rare psychological condition.
Advantages:
- Provides detailed and in-depth information.
- Useful for studying rare or unusual cases.
- Can help generate hypotheses for future research.
Disadvantages:
- Findings may not be generalizable to other people or situations.
- It can be time-consuming and expensive.
- Researcher interpretation may introduce bias.
b. Observation
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behavior as it occurs naturally.
Example: A researcher observes how children interact with each other during play.
Advantages:
- Allows researchers to study actual behavior.
- Useful when participants cannot or do not accurately report their behavior.
- Provides direct information about behavior.
Disadvantages:
- Observer bias may affect the results.
- People may change their behavior when they know they are being observed.
- It cannot easily establish the causes of behavior.
c. Survey
A survey collects information by asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors. The two common types are interviews and questionnaires.
i. Interview
An interview involves asking questions directly to participants, either face-to-face or through another communication method.
Advantages:
- Allows detailed responses.
- The researcher can clarify questions.
- Useful for exploring complex topics.
Disadvantages:
- Time-consuming and sometimes expensive.
- Interviewer bias may influence responses.
- Participants may give socially desirable answers.
ii. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a written or electronic set of questions completed by participants.
Advantages:
- Can collect information from a large number of people.
- Relatively quick and inexpensive.
- Responses can be standardized and easily compared.
- Participants may feel more comfortable giving anonymous responses.
Disadvantages:
- Participants may misunderstand questions.
- Responses may be inaccurate or socially desirable.
- Researchers cannot always clarify questions.
- Low response rates may reduce the usefulness of the findings.
2. Experimental Research
Experimental research investigates cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable. There are three main types of experiments.
a. Laboratory Experiment
A laboratory experiment is conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher carefully controls the variables and manipulates the independent variable.
Example: A researcher studies conformity in a controlled laboratory setting by exposing participants to different levels of group pressure.
Advantages:
- Provides high control over variables.
- Helps establish cause-and-effect relationships.
- Can be replicated easily.
- Reduces the influence of extraneous variables.
Disadvantages:
- The setting may be artificial.
- Participants may behave differently because they know they are being studied.
- Findings may have low ecological validity.
- Some experiments may raise ethical concerns.
b. Field Experiment
A field experiment is conducted in a natural, real-world setting, but the researcher still manipulates the independent variable.
Example: A researcher changes the number of people present during a real-world helping situation to examine its effect on helping behavior.
Advantages:
- Behavior is more natural.
- Has greater ecological validity.
- Allows researchers to study cause and effect in real-world situations.
Disadvantages:
- Researchers have less control over extraneous variables.
- It can be difficult to replicate.
- Ethical issues may arise.
- Controlling the environment is difficult.
c. Natural Experiment
A natural experiment occurs when the independent variable changes naturally and is not directly manipulated by the researcher.
Example: Researchers study people’s psychological reactions before and after a natural disaster.
Advantages:
- Allows researchers to study situations that may be impossible or unethical to create deliberately.
- Has high real-world relevance.
- Useful for studying naturally occurring events.
Disadvantages:
- Researchers have little control over variables.
- It can be difficult to establish definite cause and effect.
- Difficult to replicate.
- Groups may differ in other important ways.
3. Correlational Research
Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It shows whether variables are related but does not prove that one variable causes another.
a. Positive Correlation
A positive correlation occurs when two variables move in the same direction. As one variable increases, the other also tends to increase, or both decrease together.
Example: The more time students spend studying, the higher their exam scores tend to be.
Advantage: It helps identify relationships and make predictions.
Disadvantage: It cannot establish cause and effect.
b. Negative Correlation
A negative correlation occurs when two variables move in opposite directions. As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.
Example: As the amount of time spent on social media increases, the amount of sleep may decrease.
Advantage: It helps identify relationships and make predictions.
Disadvantage: It cannot establish cause and effect, and another variable may explain the relationship.
c. Zero Correlation
Zero correlation means that there is no systematic relationship between two variables.
Example: A person’s shoe size and their examination performance are generally unrelated.
Advantage: It helps researchers identify variables that do not have a meaningful relationship.
Disadvantage: It does not explain why the variables are unrelated and may fail to detect more complex relationships.
4. Archival Research
Archival research involves studying existing records, documents, or previously collected data rather than collecting new information directly from participants.
Examples include government records, census data, newspapers, historical documents, school records, hospital records, and existing research databases.
Advantages:
- Provides access to large amounts of existing information.
- Often less expensive and time-consuming than collecting new data.
- Useful for studying historical events and long-term trends.
- Researchers do not need to directly interfere with participants.
Disadvantages:
- Researchers have little control over how the original data were collected.
- Records may be incomplete or inaccurate.
- Data may have been collected for a different purpose.
- Existing records may contain bias or may not be available.
History of Social Psychology
1. Wilhelm Wundt and the Scientific Discipline (1862-1894)
- Anglo-European Influences: Renaissance, Industrial Revolution, folk psychology, individual vs. collective mind.
- German philosophers: Steinthal and Lazarus.
- Hegel (1770-1831) and Gustav Le Bon (1896/1908).
2. The Early Years (1895-1935)
- Norman Triplett.
- William McDougall (English Psychologist).
- Edward Ross (American sociologist Edward Ross).
- Floyd Allport (1924).
- Murchison (1935).
- Murphy and Murphy (1931/37).
- Klineberg (1940).
3. Coming of Age (1936-1945)
- Kurt Lewin.
- Practical usefulness of psychology.
4. Rapid Expansion (1946-1969)
- Stanley Milgram (1963): Obedience.
- Leon Festinger: Cognitive Dissonance.
5. Crisis and Reassessment (1970-1984)
- Crisis of Confidence.
- Cognitive Revolution.
- Self-Concept.
6. Global and Interdisciplinary View (1985-Present)
- Overseas influence.
- Multinational studies.
- Biological basis of social behavior.
- Research grants (Social psychology and neuroscience).