psych
Fixed mindsets = people who believe their intelligence is set in time, they think their intelligence is carved in stone and they wonder “if they have enough of it” Growth mindsets = people who believe their knowledge is always expanding and growing as they continue learning throughout their life. Scientific studies show that people with different learning styles perform better on an exam when presented one way or the other. If learning styles are limiting learning at all it’s because we believe/think we aren’t capable of learning in other ways. What is the relationship between sleep and learning? Sleep compiles the information into more memorable. stuff. Things learned shortly before sleep are remembered better. People use self-handicapping to protect their ego because the handicap allows for them to make an excuse for their lack of success and place fault on an ostensibly external factor instead of themselves. Stereotype threat is where a subject feels anxiety when believed that their identified group or they would be perceived negatively if they underperform in an activity that they are expected to excel at. Inattentional blindness is the phenomenon that occurs when one is focusing particularly on one subject, where they are blind to changes in the non-focused area. Cognition: The way we process information. Metacognition: Higher level cognition and thinking about the thought process itself. Automatic Cognition: does not require us to pay attention, nor do we have to deliberately put in the effort. Controlled Cognition: requires us to pay attention and deliberately put in the effort. Intentionally done while we are consciously aware of what we are doing. Stroop task: Words of colors in different colored ink are written on a screen, and you have to state the actual color of the word. “Congruent trials”= colors of words match the actual word “Incongruent trials”= color of word is different than the word. Availability Heuristic: Things you hear about more often example: more people being afraid to fly than drive. Representative Heuristic: Based on a stereotype; judgments about which category something belongs in. Empirical Evidence – data being collected through direct observation or experiment and does not rely on argument or belief. Experiments and observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so others can verify. Objectivity – all sources of bias are minimized and personal or subjective ideas are eliminated. Control – All extraneous variables need to be controlled in order to establish cause (IV) and effect (DV). Predictability – We should be aiming to be able to predict future behavior from the findings of our research. Replication – Refers to whether a particular method and finding can be replicated with different/same people and/or different occasions, to see if results are similar. Hypothesis Testing: Statement made at the start of investigation serves as prediction and derived from theory. Null Hypothesis – default position that the effect you are looking for does not exist. Alternate Hypothesis – your prediction is correct. Number of Tails – hypothesis can have a direction. A directional hypothesis not only states that an effect exists, but also states the direction of the effect. This is known as the number of tails of the hypothesis:· One Tail – the hypothesis has an implied direction· The null hypothesis (Physical exercise does not increase mood) is one-tailed· Two Tails – the hypothesis does not imply a direction· A two-tailed version of the hypothesis would be (Exercise has an impact on mood) – Don’t know if relationship between exercise and happiness will have a positive or negative impact.Validities Poor Validity – when outcome is telling you something other than your hypothesis. Internal validity – inside the study, is what you think is going on really going on?· Essentially, is the hypothesis and the hypothesized variables affecting your findings? External Validity – Whether study works outside a specific environment, with specific population. Extent which results of a study can be generalized to other situations and people. Errors·Type I Error – falsely rejecting the null hypothesis – this is a false scientific claim·The effect you are looking for does not exist in reality, but conclusion of your study is effect is real. Type II Error – Falsely accepting the null hypothesis – this is a missed scientific discovery. The effect you are looking for is real, but the outcome of your research is that there is no effect. Statistical Significance – The goal of hypothesis testing is not to see if there is any difference between measurements, but rather to see if the differences are unlikely to be due to random variation z· If so, we can say that our results are statistically significant Reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than a predetermined threshold, the significance level For example, if we use a significance level of 0.01 and obtain a p-value of 0.008, we reject the null hypothesis and say that the result is statistically significant. Experiment Design – manipulate one aspect of the trial (the independent variable) and measure the impact on another aspect of the trial (the dependent variable) Two primary methods of data collection:1.Independent groups – Data collected from two different groups of people. Example:· A control group that does not exercise and a treatment group that exercises regularly 2.Same Subjects – Data consists of multiple measurements from same group of participants. Example:· Happiness levels before starting an exercise regime, and after months of training same group· same subject research designs have more statistical power, fewer sources of variation in experiment. Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) – combines both design types by having pre and post measures for both a control and treatment group – The golden standard of clinical trials. Parametric test model – make certain assumptions about the nature of underlying data. Non-parametric test model – more general. 1.Random Sampling – everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected·Advantage – sample should represent target population and eliminate sampling bias. Disadvantage – very difficult to achieve (time, effort, and money)2. Stratified Sampling – Researcher identifies different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative· Advantage – the sample should be highly representative of the target population, difficult 3. Opportunity Sampling – people from target population available at the time and willing. It is based on convenience based – Very biased, but quick and easy 4. Systematic Sampling – Choose subjects in systematic (orderly/logical) way from target population – Like every nth participant on a list of names· By dividing the number of people in the population by the number of people you want in your sample, you get a number we will call n – should provide a representative sample, but costly Target Population – the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn Sample – the group of people who take part in the investigation, the participants Generalizability –extent to which we apply the findings of our research to the target population. Differential Reinforcement – the implementation of reinforcing only the appropriate response (or behavior you wish to increase) and applying extinction to all other responses. Satiation – More of something is required to get the same effect. Operant Conditioning – the outcome behavior is a brand new behavior. Positive reinforcement – unscheduled. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement – ratio of behavior to reinforcement (example – paid by commission). Interval reinforcement – based off of time (example – hourly wage). Shaping – differential reinforcement of successive approximations towards a target behavior. Small reinforcements given for little tasks along the way to the target behavior. Differential reinforcement – bigger reinforcement given once target behavior is achieved.
Affect (feelings), behavior and cognition (mental processes such as thoughts)=ABCs