Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship & Spain’s Path to Republic
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship & Path to the Republic
This text provides a description of the salient features of Miguel Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, the decline of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XIII, and the proclamation of the Second Republic in Spain. Chronologically, we are primarily situated in the 1920s. For an optimal presentation of the content, we will establish three major interrelated thematic blocks:
The Advent of Dictatorship
This section presents the background to the arrival of the dictatorship, including the causes that explain Miguel Primo de Rivera’s military coup.
Causes of the 1923 Coup
Specifically, the early 1920s saw a sharp crisis in Spain across various fields. The established ruling parties were no longer as effective as before, and the ongoing War in Morocco was a major drain on the country. By 1922-23, two possible solutions to the prevailing situation were being considered:
- A civilian solution to the crisis, advocating for a more democratic system, the dissolution of the military defense boards (Juntas de Defensa), and the appointment of a civilian government to resolve the conflict in Morocco.
- A military solution, favouring an authoritarian option, which was fairly common in agricultural and underdeveloped European countries at the time.
Primo de Rivera’s Coup d’état
The civilian solution did not materialize, while the military option emerged as a viable alternative to overcome the difficulties. Specifically, on the night of September 12-13, 1923, the Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, declared a state of war in the region and assumed governmental functions. He also published a manifesto with Regenerationist undertones directed at the country and the army, where he denounced the state of the Restoration regime and committed to solving problems such as terrorism, separatism, lawlessness, caciquismo (local political bossism), and the problematic War in Morocco. Initially, there was little political or social opposition, except for a failed general strike attempt. Immediately, King Alfonso XIII appointed Primo de Rivera head of a military government known as the Directory, which had two main stages:
Stages of the Dictatorship
Military Directory (1923-1925)
Interestingly, the dictator came to power presenting his rule as a temporary solution to the country’s crisis. His first actions included:
- Dissolving the Cortes (parliament).
- Forming a government composed exclusively of military personnel, in which Primo de Rivera served as the sole minister, assisted by a board of military officials.
- Extending the state of war throughout the country, maintaining it until 1925.
Paradoxically, the 1876 Constitution was not repealed, although constitutional guarantees were largely suspended. He favored the creation of an official political movement known as the “Patriotic Union” (Unión Patriótica), which operated in practice as a single party.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
From 1924 onwards, civilians began to regain positions in the militarized administration, especially conservative Catholics and Mauristas (followers of Antonio Maura). Primo de Rivera thus prepared the ground to perpetuate his regime. A Civil Directory was established, incorporating trained civilians like José Calvo Sotelo (Minister of Finance) and Eduardo Aunós (Minister of Labour). In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was established to draft a new constitution intended to legitimize the regime, a goal that was ultimately not achieved.