Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the Rise of the Second Republic
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Path to the Second Republic
On September 12, 1923, General Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia in Barcelona, initiated a coup, issuing a manifesto outlining a program of action based on a regeneracionista military dictatorship. King Alfonso XIII appointed him as minister with full powers, effectively ending the political system of the Restoration. The dictator was advised by a board composed of military generals.
Background to the Dictatorship
Several factors contributed to the rise of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship:
- The ongoing political crisis since 1917.
- Social unrest and strikes.
- The emergence of political responsibilities following the Annual disaster in Morocco.
- The international context, influenced by figures like Mussolini.
Initial opposition to the coup was limited, as the existing political system lacked prestige, and even the labor sector showed some satisfaction.
Actions of the Military Directory
The Military Directory pursued the following lines of action:
- Maintenance of public order: A state of war was declared, civil governors were replaced by military personnel, and strict censorship was imposed.
- Dismantling of the political system: Increased centralization of power, with everything dependent on the dictator.
- Suppression of Catalan nationalism: The Commonwealth of Catalonia was dissolved, and external symbols of Catalan identity were removed.
Morocco and the Landing of Alhucemas
Initially, Primo de Rivera favored withdrawing from Morocco. However, due to strong opposition from the Africanistas (proponents of Spanish presence in Africa), he opted for maintaining the colony. The attack of the Rif allowed for the realization of the landing of Alhucemas in 1925, leading to a Spanish victory by mid-1926.
The Civil Directory (1925-1927)
The early years of the dictatorship were popular, coinciding with the economic prosperity of the “Roaring Twenties.” Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship shared similarities with Mussolini’s regime. In economics, he adopted an interventionist policy, creating monopolies such as Telefónica and CAMPSA. A public works plan was implemented, including large expositions for propaganda purposes. However, this led to an increase in public debt, which would become a burden for subsequent Republican governments.
Emergence of Opposition and Fall of Primo de Rivera (1927-1930)
Opposition to the dictatorship grew, linked to former Republican political parties, liberal military figures (e.g., Ramón Franco), intellectuals, and students. In 1930, Primo de Rivera presented his resignation to Alfonso XIII, who was already considering his replacement.
From Dictatorship to Republic
Alfonso XIII handed power to General Berenguer, a military figure with limited political experience and suspected involvement in the Annual disaster. Berenguer attempted to return to the constitutional regime of the Restoration, given that Republican opposition had broken the law by consenting to the coup. Berenguer’s government proceeded to restore constitutional liberties and the parliamentary system, but its slow pace and lack of direction led the press to brand it the “soft dictatorship.”
During 1930, the Republican movement gained strength. Many monarchist politicians (e.g., Maura, Alcalá-Zamora) declared themselves Republicans. The PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) and the CNT (National Confederation of Labor) offered their support. The main Republican parties signed the Pact of San Sebastian, forming a united front against the monarchy. The revolutionary committee made contacts for an insurrection, but this failed. Two days before, a horse group failed to rise. Members of the committee were shot and imprisoned. Public opinion rebelled, and the government launched new elections.
Republican Majority and Proclamation of the Second Republic
Following the elections, Alfonso XIII went into exile, and the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931.