Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the Fall of the Spanish Monarchy
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The Coup
In a context of political and social crisis, on September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup in Barcelona. Alfonso XIII accepted a Military Board chaired by Primo de Rivera, which suspended the constitutional parliamentary system.
Primo de Rivera defended his action as a solution to the political crisis and social unrest. Several factors contributed to the coup:
- Instability and crashes of the parliamentary political system.
- Fear of a social revolution among the upper classes due to rising worker and peasant unrest.
- The increasing influence of republicanism and peripheral nationalism.
- Discontent within the Army after the Disaster of Annual.
The military justified the coup with claims of moral regeneration and criticism of “old politics.” The lack of reaction from the labor movement is also notable. The dictatorship was an unconstitutional solution to halt potential reforms that threatened certain sectors and interests.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera had two phases. Until 1925, the Military Directory ruled, composed of soldiers. From 1925 onward, the Civil Directorate included civilian ministers, though the military’s influence remained significant, and the regime’s authoritarian nature persisted.
The Directory’s first actions demonstrated its dictatorial nature:
- Suspension of constitutional rule.
- Dissolution of the courts.
- Dismissal of civil authorities.
- Militarization of public order.
- Prohibition of political parties and trade unions.
- Suppression of the more radical worker’s movement.
Electoral mechanisms were suspended, and political renewal was limited. The war in Morocco, a focus for Primo de Rivera, ended with the landing of Alhucemas. To bolster support, the regime created the Patriotic Union, a single party without a defined ideology, intended to provide social support for the dictatorship.
The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
From 1926, Primo de Rivera attempted to institutionalize his regime. He convened a National Consultative Assembly of a corporate nature, abandoning universal suffrage. The dictatorship benefited from a favorable international economic situation and launched a development program:
- Increased protectionism and government intervention through subsidies to boost agriculture, industry, and commerce.
- State promotion of public works and services, funded through a Special Budget, masking accumulating debt.
- Regulation of labor disputes through joint committees.
Opposition and Fall of the Dictatorship
Various political forces opposed the regime:
- Established parties criticized their exclusion from power.
- Intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset and Unamuno, along with university society, voiced dissent.
- Republican opposition was constant, supported by the CNT, PSOE, and PCE.
- In Catalonia, Primo de Rivera’s measures were seen as anti-Catalanist, alienating even initial sympathizers.
Alfonso XIII withdrew his support, leading to Primo de Rivera’s resignation. General Berenguer’s “Dictablanda” aimed to restore constitutional normalcy but failed. Admiral Aznar then took over, but the constitutionalization process remained slow.
The Pact of San Sebastián and the Fall of the Monarchy
Republicans, left-wing Catalan nationalists, and the PSOE signed the Pact of San Sebastián (August 1930), agreeing to participate in elections and form a revolutionary committee to serve as the provisional government of a future Republic. Municipal elections resulted in a Republican victory, effectively a referendum on the monarchy. This paved the way for the Second Spanish Republic.