Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930): Rise and Fall
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The Rise of the Dictatorship
The first two decades of the 20th century in Spain were marked by failed political regeneration attempts. The alternating governments proved incapable of establishing a true democratic system. Furthermore, echoing trends across Europe, the 1917 communist revolution in Russia pushed Spanish socialists, anarchists, and right-wing parties towards ideological extremes. Social unrest and violence escalated, with farmers and workers consistently protesting for better conditions. The crisis of 1917 and the Annual Disaster weakened the regime, while ongoing conflicts in Morocco further discredited the Restoration System.
Amidst this turmoil, certain sectors of society, particularly the bourgeoisie and conservative groups, called for military intervention to restore order. Mussolini’s 1922 seizure of power in Italy served as a model, encouraging a dictatorial solution to Spain’s crisis. A two-month transportation strike in Barcelona in 1923 provided the context for Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, to launch a coup d’état on September 13, 1923. The coup was met with widespread indifference and no resistance. King Alfonso XIII not only continued to reign but also supported the coup.
Primo de Rivera’s Objectives
- Resolve the Moroccan conflict
- Ensure public order
- Suppress the proletarian revolution
- Contain Catalan and Basque nationalism
Primo de Rivera initially presented his government as temporary, but his dictatorship ultimately lasted several years.
The Dictatorship in Action
Initial Measures
- Concentration of powers in Primo de Rivera
- Creation of an advisory directory
- Dissolution of Parliament (Cortes)
- Amnesty for those court-martialed for the Annual Disaster
- Banning of political parties
The 1876 Constitution was effectively abolished, though officially remained suspended. Press censorship was enforced, anarchist and communist leaders were arrested, and Catalan and Basque nationalists faced persecution. Rights and freedoms were suspended.
The Military Directory (1923-1925)
During this period, power resided with the military. Mayors and councilors were appointed by the government, eliminating municipal elections. The CNT (National Confederation of Labor) was dissolved, and attacks decreased significantly. The use of Catalan was restricted to the private sphere. In Morocco, the 1925 landing at Al Hoceima proved successful, ending the Rif rebellion and leading to the surrender of its leader, Abd-el-Krim.
The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
This period aimed to establish a new liberal political regime based on three pillars:
- The Patriotic Union: A single-party system modeled after the Italian Fascist Party, intended to mobilize public support for the regime. Its ideology was anti-parliamentary, authoritarian, traditionalist, and Catholic. It failed to gain widespread support.
- National Consultative Assembly: Representatives were appointed by the government from the Patriotic Union, military, clergy, and other sectors (industrialists, bankers, press, landowners, merchants, teachers, etc.). Representation was corporate, not ideological.
- Development of a new constitution: This draft was never approved.
Economic Policies and Downfall
The state controlled production and prices, adopting protectionist policies. Monopolies were created for oil (CAMPSA) and the telephone company (CTNE). Labor disputes were resolved through joint committees comprising worker and employer representatives, with a government representative acting as arbitrator. The UGT (General Union of Workers) supported the dictatorship, hoping to improve workers’ conditions.
Primo de Rivera’s economic management initially saw increased production and decreased labor disputes. However, the wealthy benefited most, and the system relied heavily on the global economic boom. The dictatorship’s downfall stemmed from several factors:
- A rift between Primo de Rivera and the King
- Loss of support within the army
- Increased state debt due to public works projects
- Rising strikes in 1929 (coinciding with the onset of the Great Depression)
- Bourgeois opposition to the joint committees
- Criticism from intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset and Miguel de Unamuno
- Primo de Rivera’s declining health
In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile in Paris, where he died shortly after. His resignation marked the beginning of the end for Alfonso XIII’s reign, culminating in the monarchy’s demise and the proclamation of the Second Republic in April 1931.