Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930): Rise and Fall
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship: Causes of the Coup
The Crisis and the Rise of the Military
Several factors led to the military dictatorship as a perceived solution to Spain’s crisis. It stemmed from cooperation between the upper bourgeoisie, middle classes, and the army:
- Army complaints after the Annual disaster, attempting to avoid repercussions from the Picasso Expedient (analyzing the defeat’s causes), particularly for generals like Berenguer.
- Rise of peripheral nationalisms, republicans, and the workers’ movement.
- Triumph of Italian Fascism and Mussolini’s rise to power.
The 1923 Coup D’état
General Captain of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, led the 1923 coup, immediately supported by King Alphonse XIII. The coup involved declaring a state of war, suspending constitutional guarantees, and dissolving the courts. The 1976 constitution’s regime was replaced by a military dictatorship with little opposition.
Military Directorate (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera became the sole dictator, advised by a Military Directorate. The same oligarchy of landowners and industrialists who dominated during the Restoration remained influential.
The Military Directorate implemented several measures:
- Suppression of Catalan symbols: Banning the flag and anthem, restricting Catalan language use to the private sphere.
- Harsh policies against those disrupting public order.
- Creation of the Patriotic Union: A military-led single party, emulating Italian Fascism.
The Directorate’s greatest success was the 1925 Alhucemas amphibious operation, ending resistance from the Rift cabilas. Their leader, Abd-el-Krim, surrendered to French Moroccan authorities. The Moroccan War’s end boosted the dictator’s popularity.
Civilian Directorate (1925-1930)
In late 1925, a civilian government under Primo de Rivera replaced the Military Directorate, attempting to institutionalize the dictatorship. An assembly, primarily composed of Patriotic Union members elected through limited suffrage, was formed in 1927, mirroring the Fascist Council. This attempt failed when they tried to create a fundamental law as a constitution.
Following the Italian fascist model, Working Corporative Organizations, a form of union seeking employer-employee consensus, were created. This institutionalization attempt also failed.
Opposition and Fall of Primo de Rivera
Opposition came from a broad political spectrum: liberals, conservatives, republicans, socialists, anarchists, intellectuals, and students. Growing discontent within the army, opposing Primo’s arbitrary measures, was crucial.
After the 1929 New York stock market crash, economic problems worsened. Social unrest increased with strikes, the peseta’s devaluation, and mounting opposition.
Old, ill, and lacking support, Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930, accepted by the King. He died in Paris two months later.
From Monarchy to Republic
King Alphonse XIII appointed General Berenguer as head of government, a period known as the dictablanda. Traditional dynastic parties failed to create an acceptable system, and only some discredited politicians like Romanones and De La Cierva cooperated with Berenguer.
The return of constitutional freedoms allowed the opposition to grow. In 1930, republicans, socialists, and other anti-regime groups met in the San Sebastian Pact, agreeing to abolish the monarchy and establish a democratic regime. A Revolutionary Committee led by conservative republican Alcalá Zamora coordinated the operation.
Alphonse XIII became increasingly isolated, with many in the military considering a republic. Even the CNT supported the republican conspiracy.
The Jaca garrison’s military revolt failed in December 1930, and its leaders, Galán and Garcia Hernández, were executed. Much of the Revolutionary Committee was arrested amid growing discontent.
Berenguer resigned in February 1931, replaced by Aznar. Municipal elections were called for April 12th to restore constitutional legality. These elections became a plebiscite on the monarchy. Republican victories in urban areas, especially socialist and republican candidates, led to the proclamation of the Republic and the King’s exile.