Primo de Rivera Era: Dictatorship and Transition in Spain
The Primo de Rivera Coup (1923)
The 20th century saw Spain’s first dictatorship emerge from a coup led by Primo de Rivera. Several international factors contributed to this, including the aftermath of World War I, the Bolshevik Revolution’s triumph, the rise of Italian Fascism (though Rivera wasn’t a Fascist, King Alfonso XIII called him “my Mussolini”), and the democratic crisis exacerbated by the 1929 economic crash. Internal factors included the exhaustion of the Restoration system, the army’s growing political role, deteriorating public order, political corruption, rising prices, and the rise of peripheral Catalan and Basque nationalism (generally viewed favorably by the army, with exceptions like “Acció Catalana”).
On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera launched his coup in Barcelona, swiftly gaining control. The government, unable to react, turned to King Alfonso XIII, who, viewing the revolt favorably, tasked Rivera with forming a government. Within days, Spain transitioned from a parliamentary monarchy to an authoritarian regime, with Rivera aiming to establish a “curative parenthesis.” This contradictory approach would later backfire, alienating initial supporters. The coup’s success was facilitated by the bourgeoisie and the labor movement, linking this dictatorship to the totalitarian movements emerging in interwar Europe.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
Following the coup, King Alfonso XIII formed a government exclusively composed of a military board chaired by Primo de Rivera. While accepted by most of the country, it faced political opposition. Policy measures included a manifesto outlining policy guidelines, army control over all aspects of Spanish life, the dissolution of the elected Congress and Senate, the suspension of constitutional guarantees (including habeas corpus), and press censorship. The dictatorship aimed to address key conflicts: regionalism, the Moroccan issue, and public order. The 1924 Municipal Statute, inspired by Calvo Sotelo, became a key tool against local despotism.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
After the successful Alhucemas landing, Primo de Rivera established the Civil Directory, seeking to stabilize the regime. Key elements were the Patriotic Union (a movement aiming to unite monarchists and democratic ideals under the 1876 Constitution) and the National Consultative Assembly (tasked with drafting a new constitution, which ultimately failed due to its illegitimacy and democratic deficits, including shared sovereignty between the Crown and the courts, and a lack of power separation).
Interventionist Economic Policy
The dictatorship implemented an interventionist economic policy, controlling all production sectors and monitoring economic activities. Measures included the Industrial Production Regulatory Committee (requiring permits for company installations, expansions, or relocations), aid and grants, strengthened protectionist tariffs, increased public investment, and the creation of monopolies like Telefónica and CAMPSA. This resulted in fewer strikes, modernized public works, and increased production.
Opposition and Fall of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship’s longevity was partly due to the opposition’s impotence. The old guard initially adopted a wait-and-see approach, Republicans were disunited, and military opposition was limited. However, intellectuals and peninsular military figures contributed to Rivera’s downfall. In 1924, Miguel de Unamuno’s criticism of the dictator led to his suspension and exile, galvanizing the intellectual class against the regime. Growing protests in late 1929 culminated in Rivera’s resignation on January 28, 1930. He died shortly after in Paris.
Transition to a Republic
Following Rivera’s resignation, King Alfonso XIII tasked General Berenguer with leading the country back to constitutional normalcy under the 1876 Constitution. However, his slow pace proved detrimental. In August 1930, the San Sebastián Pact united various forces advocating for a republic. A provisional government headed by Alcalá Zamora was formed. The government crisis in late 1930 forced Berenguer’s resignation, replaced by Admiral Aznar, who promised and quickly called for municipal elections on April 12, 1931. The Republican-Socialist bloc triumphed. On June 13, Romanones advised the King to leave Spain. Alcalá Zamora proclaimed the Second Republic, ushering in the new regime peacefully.