Presocratic Philosophers: From Myth to Logos
The Presocratics were philosophers and scientists who sought to demonstrate the falsity of myth. Their origins can be traced back to Miletus, a center of commerce where economic prosperity flourished. This prosperity led to entertainment, which in turn fostered contemplation, elevating myth to logos, the foundation of philosophy. This transition involved moving away from belief and tradition, which originated in imagination, and questioning the gods and the truth of beliefs. Their theories focused on appearance versus reality, using reason to understand the true nature of things (Physis). Arje (origin) is related to Physis, representing the origin of all things, often associated with water.
Anaximander
Anaximander based his philosophy on the principle of opposition, arguing that objects cannot be composed of opposing elements. He believed the universe expands and contracts. For example, dry and wet, or cold and hot, are incompatible elements. In this contraposition lies the arche, and from this arises diversity through change.
Anaximenes
Anaximenes identified air as the fundamental element. He explained qualitative and quantitative changes through variations in density. He posited that everything is air, and the changes in things are due to its different states. For example, when air is heated, it expands and becomes less dense; when it cools, it contracts and becomes denser.
Pythagoras
Pythagoras viewed the universe as a cosmos, an ordered system. His followers believed in the immortality of the soul, reincarnation, and purification through intellectualism, which they considered essential for moral improvement. They defined evil as stemming from ignorance, a lack of knowledge of the good. They likened the body to a tyrant, hindering the soul’s progress toward reality and true knowledge. They defined things through numbers.
Heraclitus
Heraclitus had a dynamic conception of reality, seeing it as in constant change. He emphasized the importance of the river as a metaphor for continuous flux. He cautioned against the tendency to believe something remains the same, even within a short period. He highlighted the role of opposition in driving change and progress. War, or opposition, is the material from which fire, a symbol of transformation, is derived.
Parmenides
Parmenides argued that what is, is, and what is not, cannot be. He believed that things do not arise from nothing. Since there is a single principle, there cannot be multiple elements that differ from each other. This principle is eternal, and from it arises the mix and diversity of the world.
Empedocles
Empedocles proposed a pluralistic view, suggesting that reality arises from multiple principles.
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras believed that everything that exists is a development of seeds that had their origin in diversity. He understood novelty as arising from two parts: the material and the spiritual. He divided thinkers into two groups: materialists, who believe order arises from pure chance, and spiritualists, who believe an intelligence (God) arranges everything.
Atomists (Leucippus and Democritus)
Leucippus and Democritus critically believed in the existence of atoms and the void. They proposed that attraction and separation between atoms are driven by love and hate.
Sophists
The Sophists were known for their relativism (the belief that truth is subjective), skepticism (the doubt that true knowledge can be attained), agnosticism (the claim that the existence of God is unknowable), and conventionalism (the view that laws are products of agreements).
Socratic Method
The Socratic Method involved irony (critical reviews and challenging arrogance) and maieutics (questioning to arrive at true definitions). It began with an admission of ignorance.
Plato
Plato proposed an ontological dualism:
Being
Being as such, the realm of ideas (perfect, immaterial, timeless, unique), is grasped by reason (episteme), which resides in the soul.
Semi-Being
Semi-being is the realm of the sensible (imperfect, material, multiple), perceived by the senses (doxa), which are associated with the body. Plato believed it is possible to reach absolute truth, which resides in the soul, and that knowledge is remembering.
Realm of Ideas
Reason (episteme = science, true knowledge) is divided into:
- Noesis – intellectual intuition = Evidence
- Dianoia – discursive reason = Demonstration
Sensitive Realm
Senses (doxa or opinion) are divided into:
- Pistis – belief
- Eikasia – imagination
The soul is divided into:
- Rational (brain): immortal, associated with wisdom.
- Irascible (chest): mortal, associated with will.
- Concupiscible (abdomen): mortal, associated with desires.
To control the soul, Plato proposed prudence for the rational soul, fortitude for the irascible soul, and temperance for the concupiscible soul.