Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Understanding Physis and Early Greek Thought
Physis: The Nature of Reality in Early Greek Philosophy
The concept of Physis (Nature) was central to early Greek philosophy, representing the fundamental, unifying element from which everything arises. It was seen as the common essence of all things, often imbued with a sensory experience. The Greek term eidos, or idea, originally referred to the visible appearance of something. Over time, its meaning evolved to signify the underlying form or essence perceived through intellect, rather than just outward appearance.
1. The Ionian School
The Ionian philosophers sought to identify the single, fundamental substance or principle (arche) from which all things originate.
Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus proposed that water was the arche. He observed its various forms (liquid, gaseous, and solid) and recognized its essential role in sustaining life.
Anaximander
Anaximander was the first to use the word arche. He posited the basic element of all things as what he called the apeiron (the boundless or indefinite), assuming the primordial state of matter to be shapeless, indefinite, and undefined.
Anaximenes
Anaximenes identified air as the first principle. He noted that air, though invisible, could be condensed into mist or water. He introduced the concept of opposing forces (condensation and rarefaction) in this process, explaining how different substances arise from air.
2. The Pythagoreans
The Pythagorean school, founded by Pythagoras, was a community dedicated to the study of music, mathematics, and respect for nature. Pythagoras is credited with being the first to apply the term “philosopher” (meaning “lover of knowledge”) to the human subject. They interpreted the first principle (arche) in a more formal rather than physical way. For the Pythagoreans, numbers were the first principle, representing the essence of reality and providing an explanation for its limits, order, form, and structure.
3. The School of Ephesus
Heraclitus
Heraclitus, the main representative of this school, believed the task of philosophy was to uncover the hidden wisdom of reality and find its truth. He asserted that reality has two manifestations: the senses perceive the constant change of things, yet reason reveals a single, permanent principle (arche) that underlies the world. The Logos (reason or universal law) maintains the balance of the universe as cosmos, acting as the law that governs the universal order and the conflicting dualism of all that exists.
4. The School of Elea
Parmenides
Parmenides, the main representative, argued that the arche of reality presupposes the rational impossibility of explaining change. His abstract, logical thinking profoundly influenced later forms of philosophy. The characteristics he attributed to “Being” (eternal, unchanging, indivisible) became foundational concepts for subsequent philosophical inquiry.
5. Pluralist Thinkers
The Pluralists sought to reconcile the Eleatic concept of an unchanging Being with the observable reality of change and plurality. They argued that if “Being” is singular, it complicates the explanation of the generation of multiple beings, change, and movement, as plurality cannot truly arise from a single, indivisible principle.
Empedocles
Empedocles proposed four fundamental elements: Air, Earth, Fire, and Water. He explained generation and corruption as effects of the mixing or separation of these elements. The forces driving their coming together or separation were two opposing cosmic forces: Love (attraction) and Strife (repulsion). Their joint action allows for the emergence of the cosmos and all things, with Love and Strife explaining life and progress by uniting and separating the primary elements.
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras attempted to reconcile the ideas of the early physicists with those of Parmenides and Heraclitus, acknowledging the plurality, movement, change, and transformation of reality. He posited a principle that is neither born nor perishes. He assumed the arche to be composed of countless elements of reality, a compact mass of “seeds” (spermata), whose mixing or separation results in plurality and change. He introduced the concept of an autonomous, infinite, unbounded, and unchanging Mind (Nous) that initiates and orders this cosmic process.
6. The Atomists
The Atomists offered a distinct explanation for physis. They posited the existence of the Void (Non-Being) and denied any other external force causing matter to move or change. They believed that all reality consists of indivisible particles moving in empty space.
Democritus
Democritus, a prominent representative, explained the cosmos by asserting that while mathematical realities can be divided infinitely, physical realities (matter) cannot. He argued that dividing matter ultimately leads to something indivisible: the atom. Atoms are infinite in number and differentiated by position, shape, and order. The Atomists advocated for the necessity of the Void’s existence to make motion and plurality possible.