Post-WWII Geopolitics: Yalta, Potsdam, Cold War & Decolonization
Peace Conferences: Yalta and Potsdam
Allies: Learning from Treaty of Versailles Mistakes
The beginning of the discussion was about what resources were needed to achieve sustainable peace. The power demonstrated in the two World Wars was a main event, and the new world order had to reflect that. At the Yalta Conference, with Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill, the fate of Nazi-occupied Europe was discussed following the evolving European situation. Soviet forces had already liberated much of Eastern Europe. Stalin committed to free and open democratic elections in Eastern Europe, but eventually did not accept Western provisions and ceased inspections. Germany was divided into four zones. The creation of the United Nations, an organization to maintain peace and international cooperation, was a primary goal.
The Potsdam Conference revealed significant discrepancies between the Allies. Stalin, initially tough, agreed to territorial expansion limits. One key outcome was the decision to hold Nazi war crimes trials.
United Nations
The United Nations Associations confirmed that the previous system was ineffective at maintaining peace, leading to the creation of a new forum. At the San Francisco Conference, the UN Charter was written, establishing the organization’s four objectives:
- Protect individual rights, regardless of age, sex, race, or religion.
- Maintain peace; new members must reject the use of force and commit to peaceful conflict resolution.
- Support the self-determination of peoples and decolonization.
- Foster cooperation between peoples through specialized UN agencies, with Member States supporting key initiatives. The Security Council holds the most important decision-making power.
Western Bloc
A Global Strategy for the United States
United States Foreign Policy Objectives:
- Opposition to the spread of Soviet communism in Europe and beyond.
- Creation of a global network of military alliances (e.g., NATO, SEATO, Rio Treaty, Baghdad Pact).
- Bilateral agreements with various countries.
- Establishment of a worldwide network of US military bases.
Political Systems of the Western Bloc
After the war, Western European countries and others established democracies based on:
- Popular sovereignty through free elections.
- Distribution of political power; laws are made in Parliament, selected through elections.
- Executive power rests with the government, accountable to Parliament.
- Citizens’ rights and obligations are guaranteed.
- Political pluralism and freedom, implying the existence of multiple political parties.
The Economic System of the Western Bloc
The Western Bloc embraced the capitalist economic system, developed since the Industrial Revolution. This system is based on two principles:
- Recognition of private property.
- Presence of a free market.
Increased state intervention in the economy was a major post-war innovation.
Communist Bloc
The Formation of the Communist Bloc
At the end of World War II, the Soviets initially agreed to coalition governments in their sphere of influence (Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria). However, Stalin encouraged Communist Party control of key ministries. In response to American initiatives, the Soviets later organized the COMECON, countering the Marshall Plan by coordinating the economies of Soviet-dominated European countries. The German Democratic Republic was founded, and the Soviet response to NATO was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, an alliance of USSR military satellites.
The Creation of “People’s Democracies”
In Eastern Europe, the USSR established “people’s democracies” characterized by:
- A single-party system; other parties were banned after Communists assumed power.
- Universal suffrage, but with limited candidate choice.
- Political power concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party, with no division between institutions.
- Lack of freedom of association or expression for citizens who did not support the regime.
A Planned Economy
After Communists assumed power, the pre-war capitalist economy was replaced with a Stalinist planned economy based on Marxist principles. Industry, trade, and financial companies were expropriated and became state property. Five-year plans dictated industrial and agricultural production, currency value, and foreign trade.
Key Cold War Events
Construction of the Berlin Wall
During the Cold War, Germany was divided. Berlin, located within East Germany, was also split into East and West sectors. The Western sector was significantly richer and offered more freedoms. To stop emigration, Communist leaders in East Berlin built the Berlin Wall, a concrete barrier that separated the city for 30 years, becoming a symbol of the Cold War.
Cuban Missile Crisis
After Fidel Castro deposed Batista, Cuba aligned with the USSR, leading to the installation of Soviet missiles on the island. President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent further Soviet military shipments, raising fears of a direct superpower conflict. The crisis de-escalated when Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles.
Vietnam War (1962-1974)
The Vietnam War was one of the bloodiest Cold War conflicts. Vietnam was divided into communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The US sent military advisors and later troops to prevent a communist victory, fearing a domino effect across Southeast Asia. Despite massive military intervention, the US could not defeat the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces. Public support for the war dwindled, and the US eventually withdrew, leading to the unification of Vietnam under communist rule.
Second Cold War (1977-1991)
A period of renewed tension emerged after peaceful coexistence, marked by the Euromissile crisis (Soviet nuclear missiles in Europe), the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and US support for anti-Soviet movements. The US deployed missiles in Europe and initiated the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Increased military spending strained the Soviet economy. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, reforms and arms control talks led to the end of the Cold War, proclaimed at the Malta Summit, and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact.