Post-WWII Europe: Soviet Influence, Cold War & Global Conflicts
Soviet Influence in Eastern Europe
After WWII, the Soviet Army occupied Eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, and Albania, communist governments aligned with the USSR were established. Coalitions, often including communist and socialist parties, initiated communist reforms. Albania’s Popular Front won the 1945 election. Czechoslovakia experienced a communist government takeover after the Prague coup. Bulgaria abolished its monarchy. In Poland, communists and socialists merged to form the Polish United Workers’ Party. In Hungary, the communist party won the 1948 election.
American Intervention and the Truman Doctrine
The US and Britain aimed to prevent the spread of communism. British Prime Minister Churchill warned of the Soviet threat. The US first intervened in Greece, where the ELAS army held control. In 1946, the monarchy was restored, leading to civil war. US President Truman requested aid for anti-communist forces, who ultimately defeated the Republicans in 1949. This marked the beginning of the Truman Doctrine, a policy of containment of Soviet power. The US established military bases in Greece and Turkey and increased troop presence in Western Europe. Financial aid was contingent on expelling communist ministers from governments in France, Italy, Belgium, and Denmark.
The Marshall Plan
General Marshall designed a relief plan for Europe’s economic reconstruction, ensuring US financial and business leadership. France and the UK accepted it, as did Yugoslavia, the only communist country to do so. The USSR and Eastern European countries rejected the plan. Participating countries created the Organization for European Economic Cooperation in 1948.
The Cold War
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were criticized by Soviet official Andrei Zhdanov as imperialistic. The term “Cold War” described the ongoing tension between the US and the Soviet Union. This period saw crises like the Berlin Blockade, the Korean and Indochina Wars, the Suez Canal crisis, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. The US established the CIA, while the USSR had the KGB. An arms race ensued, involving nuclear, chemical, and conventional weapons. The US formed NATO, and the USSR responded with the Warsaw Pact. The US adopted a “brinkmanship” policy, later tempered by a doctrine of peaceful coexistence. The US supported anti-communist regimes globally, based on the domino theory.
The Berlin Blockade
Germany was divided into four zones controlled by the US, UK, France, and the USSR. The Western powers aimed to create a unified, autonomous West German state with a constitution, which Moscow opposed, particularly regarding Berlin. The Soviets blockaded Western access to Berlin. The US responded with an airlift to supply the city. Germany was formally divided into East and West Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was proclaimed in May 1949, and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in October.
Military Alliances: NATO and the Warsaw Pact
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was signed in Washington in 1949, establishing a collective defense agreement among the US, UK, France, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, and others. In 1955, the socialist bloc formed the Warsaw Pact, including the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and others.
The Korean War
Following the Chinese revolution, the US sought to contain communism in Asia. Korea was divided into Soviet-backed North Korea and US-backed South Korea along the 38th parallel. North Korea invaded South Korea, prompting a UN multinational force intervention. General MacArthur’s bombing campaign extended into China, leading to his dismissal by Truman. The war ended with the 1953 Armistice, confirming the division of Korea.
The Indochina War
Previously a French colony, Indochina was occupied by Japan during WWII. France sought to reassert control, leading to conflict. The French, aided by the US, were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The Geneva Accords recognized the independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and provisionally divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The agreement called for elections to reunify Vietnam.
Peaceful Coexistence
Several factors contributed to a thaw in relations between the communist and capitalist blocs: 1) Military alliances proliferated: the US rearmed Japan, supported Nationalist China in Taiwan, and formed alliances like SEATO (1954) and the Baghdad Pact (1955). 2) New leadership emerged: Eisenhower in the US pursued a moderate foreign policy, and Khrushchev in the USSR advocated for peaceful coexistence. Domestic events like McCarthyism in the US and anti-communist uprisings in East Berlin, Poland, and Hungary also played a role.
The Suez Crisis
The creation of Israel heightened tensions in the Middle East. In 1956, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal after the US withdrew aid for the Aswan Dam. France, the UK, and Israel attacked Egypt, occupying the canal and the Sinai Peninsula. The Soviet Union supported Egypt, and UN and US pressure forced the aggressors to withdraw. The canal came under UN protection.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
The US supported Cuban dictator Batista. In 1959, Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Batista. Relations between Cuba and the US deteriorated as Cuba aligned with the USSR. In 1961, a CIA-backed invasion at the Bay of Pigs failed. Cuba allowed the USSR to install nuclear missiles on its territory. The US imposed a naval blockade. Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for a US non-invasion pledge and the removal of US missiles from Turkey.
Détente
After the Cuban Missile Crisis, a period of détente began between the US and the USSR. Kennedy and Khrushchev established communication channels, including the “hotline” in 1963. The arms race was costly, leading to the US adopting the MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) doctrine. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty aimed to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. The SALT treaty focused on arms control. Non-aligned countries formed a bloc at the Bandung Conference. The Sino-Soviet split emerged, with China offering an alternative socialist model and establishing relations with the US. France withdrew from NATO’s military command. West Germany’s Willy Brandt pursued Ostpolitik, seeking rapprochement with Eastern Europe. Conflicts continued in Vietnam and the Middle East.
The Vietnam War
Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh in North Vietnam fought to unify the country. In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem established a dictatorial government. North Vietnam supported the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) in the South.