Post-War Spain (1939-1975): Politics, Economics, and Society
Post-War Spain (1939-1975): A Societal Overview
Origins of the Franco State
Initially, the rebels lacked a political plan to replace republican institutions. However, Franco’s success with the African army, his skill in securing aid from Germany and Italy, and the absence of significant rivals allowed him to consolidate broad political and military power.
- Success leading the African army
- Securing material aid from Germany and Italy
- Lack of powerful rivals
Ideological Sources and Influences
Fascism: Franco’s rejection of the Republic and monarchy led to the adoption of Fascism. In 1937, he unified Falangist and Carlist forces under the FET y de las JONS banner, adopting the title of Caudillo and evoking the old Spanish Empire.
Axis Alignment: Spain joined the Axis powers, aligning with Germany and Italy.
Catholicism: The Civil War was framed as a religious crusade. Franco and the Church benefited from this union, with the Church gaining significant control over education and local politics.
Political Aspects
Franco’s regime (1939-1975) was characterized by:
- Centralized Power: Franco controlled the executive, military, legislative, and judicial branches.
- Rejection of Democracy: Democratic principles were rejected, and universal suffrage was denied.
- One-Party Rule: The FET y de las JONS was the sole legal party.
- Lack of Constitution: A written constitution was absent, and institutional development was slow.
- Fundamental Laws: Key legislation included labor law, jurisdictional laws, the law of succession, and the national referendum act.
The regime was presented as an”organic democracy” a system that channeled political participation through families, municipalities, and other institutions. Traditional trade unions were banned, replaced by compulsory”vertical union” encompassing workers, technicians, and employers. Strikes were prohibited. Courts were not directly elected, and public opinion was controlled through repression, political indoctrination, and suppression of individual freedoms.
Key Groups Supporting the Regime
- Military: The military provided strong support, enjoying high social prestige and influence, though with limited real power. Later, opposition emerged within the military (UMD).
- Catholic Church: The Church actively supported the rebels and played a significant role in government, notably through Opus Dei. Relations between the Church and the regime cooled after Vatican II.
- Royalists: Monarchist support existed from the start, with both Alfonsinos and Carlists advocating for the restoration of the monarchy.
- Phalangists: The Falange provided ideological and symbolic support, controlling social activities and healthcare, but with limited decision-making power. By 1967, dissent emerged within the Falange.
In 1947, Franco established Spain as a kingdom without a king. Later, he designated Juan Carlos as his heir.
Spain’s Role in World War II
Spain maintained a complex stance during World War II:
- Initial Neutrality: A friendship pact with Germany ensured Spanish neutrality.
- Non-Belligerence: While not directly fighting, Spain provided some aid to the Axis powers.
- Limited Belligerence: The German invasion of the USSR prompted the formation of the Blue Division, a volunteer force fighting on the Eastern Front.
- Return to Non-Belligerence: The U.S. entry into the war led to a reduction in Spanish aid to the Axis.
- Final Neutrality: After Mussolini’s fall, the Blue Division was dissolved, and Spain returned to a neutral stance.
Foreign Policy
Spain’s foreign policy involved two phases:
First Phase (until 1950): International isolation, exclusion from the Marshall Plan, and non-membership in the UN due to Axis ties. This isolation was intended to pressure Franco.
Second Phase (from 1950): With the Cold War, the U.S. resumed relations with Spain. Spain joined international organizations like the UN and the IMF, but not the EEC or NATO. Relations with Latin America and Arab countries strengthened, and Morocco gained independence.
Opposition to the Regime
Opposition movements lacked unity, hampered by the international context, limited information, and widespread fear and hunger. Internal opposition included rural guerrilla groups (maquis) and limited urban strikes. External opposition included the ineffective Republican government in exile and the monarchist opposition led by Juan de Borbón.
Economic Policies
Initially, the regime pursued an autarkic policy, aiming for self-sufficiency through import limitations, protection of domestic industries, and state control over production and distribution. This led to declining income, industrial production, and a trade deficit. Agriculture, despite difficulties, remained the most important sector.
Later, a gradual economic opening ended rationing, relaxed market controls, and initiated limited land and industrial reforms. Economic problems in the late 1950s led to labor protests and university unrest.
Social Changes
Post-war Spain experienced widespread poverty, leading to significant emigration. However, high marriage rates and declining unemployment due to agricultural underemployment and limited female workforce participation led to population growth. Internal migration from rural areas to cities fueled rapid urbanization and industrialization. Advances in healthcare also occurred. The Church played a significant role, promoting nacionalcatolicismo.
The education system was heavily controlled, with censorship and indoctrination. However, a new generation of university-educated individuals emerged, challenging the regime.
Franco Dictatorship (1959-1975): Economic, Social, and Political Developments
Economic Policies
The Stability Plan, implemented with the help of Opus Dei technocrats, aimed to end autarky, integrate Spain into the international market, and modernize the economy. Measures included devaluation of the peseta, tax increases, and encouragement of foreign investment. While successful in avoiding bankruptcy and lowering inflation, the plan also led to increased unemployment and emigration.
Development Plans: Public investment and aid to private companies boosted production. Factors contributing to economic expansion included favorable international conditions, foreign investment, tourism revenue, remittances, reduced labor costs, and significant public works investment. However, this growth was uneven, leading to regional imbalances, inadequate social services, urban problems, and ecological damage.
Economic Crisis (1973): Rising oil prices triggered a crisis, exacerbated by Spain’s external dependence, declining tourism, and reduced exports. This led to declining GDP growth, rising unemployment, and increased budget and external deficits.
Social Changes
The 1960s saw declining mortality and birth rates, along with a massive rural exodus. The workforce shifted towards secondary and tertiary sectors, with increased female participation and a growing middle class. Changes in mentality and social habits included increased consumerism, mass entertainment, and declining illiteracy rates.
A new generation of intellectuals emerged, leading protests in the 1960s and 1970s, challenging the regime’s control over culture.
Political Developments
Economic development led to social changes but limited political reforms, increasing tensions within the regime. The 1966 Organic Law of the State aimed to provide a constitutional framework for the regime’s”organic democracy” Juan Carlos was named heir apparent in 1969, and the post of vice president was created (Carrero Blanco).
Liberalizing measures included new laws on the press, religious freedom, education, collective bargaining, and trade unions. A court of public order was established to try political crimes.
Opposition to the Regime
Opposition included worker protests (influenced by Catholic and Communist groups), university student movements, Basque and Catalan nationalism (including ETA), growing opposition within the Church (after Vatican II), and military dissent (UMD). Political opposition groups, such as the Platajunta, emerged, though they remained fragmented.
Foreign Policy
Spain sought closer ties with the European Community and the U.S., while tensions with the Vatican increased. Relations with Latin America and Arab countries continued, and contacts with the USSR began. Spain’s decolonization efforts included the cession of Ifni to Morocco, the Sahara issue, Guinea’s independence, and continued claims on Gibraltar. The”Green Marc” led to the division of the Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania.