Post-Revolutionary Europe: Napoleon, Revolutions, Nationalism
France Under the Directory
The Directory was forced to use strong measures to maintain control. For this reason, both royalist uprisings and radical movements (like the Conspiracy of Equals) were harshly repressed. In this context, preparations began for Napoleon’s rise, which culminated in the coup d’état known as the 18th Brumaire of 1799. He promised the French people that calm would return and that the French Revolution would end.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
From 1802, Napoleon consolidated his power as First Consul. His legislative work focused on consolidating the spirit of 1791, drafting a new constitution that established the bourgeoisie as the dominant group, and laying the foundations of liberal law by drafting the Civil Code, Penal Code, and Commercial Code. Proclaimed Emperor in 1804, Napoleon aimed to export these ideals and end absolutism in Europe. This led to a new stage of foreign wars that lasted until 1814. Despite his defeat, Napoleon left a very important legacy; when attempts were made to restore absolutism in Europe, the bourgeoisie of those nations reacted, leading to a convulsive period in Europe.
Revolutionary Europe
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, England) met at the Congress of Vienna to re-establish the Ancien Régimes and borders that existed prior to 1789. This conference also created the Holy Alliance with the aim of suppressing any liberal outbreaks in Europe.
The Liberal Revolutions
After the Congress of Vienna and the restoration of absolutism in Europe, liberals were forced underground. This favored the emergence of secret societies aiming to implement liberalism through uprisings.
- First Wave (1820): Attempts occurred in Spain, Portugal, and some Italian states. These early attempts failed due to harsh suppression and intervention by the Holy Alliance.
- Second Wave (1830s): This wave was more widespread and marked the triumph of moderate liberalism. It gave rise to a new political class formed by the conservative bourgeoisie, the wealthy bourgeoisie, and the ancien nobility, marginalizing other social groups through the introduction of censitary suffrage and limited freedoms. Belgian independence also occurred during this period.
- Third Wave (1848): This wave resulted from social unrest caused by a lack of freedoms and poor living conditions, leading to the growth of the proletariat. These revolutions are important because they brought the proletariat onto the stage for the first time with demands that were not just political (universal suffrage, freedom of association) but also social (state intervention in the economy and social issues). However, this wave was severely repressed but paved the way for the consolidation of democratic liberalism, not only through legislation but also through state efforts to improve the working class’s conditions.
Nations and Nationalist Movements
Nationalism emerged from two sources:
- The need to create strong states to adapt to the new economic realities of the Industrial Revolution (e.g., elimination of internal borders).
- The Napoleonic occupation of many European countries, which aroused national feeling.
These two pathways gave rise to two ideas of the nation: the French (or civic) and the German (or ethnic). The French concept emphasized the creation of the nation through the will of the individual, while the German concept gave much more importance to spiritual values and shared culture rather than individual choice.