Popper vs. Kuhn: Philosophy of Science and Paradigm Shifts
Differences Between Verificationism and Falsificationism
The two major approaches to scientific methodology are:
- Verificationism: An increased number of confirming cases suggests the hypothesis is true and possesses greater scientific value.
- Falsificationism: A hypothesis is only important if it is deemed unlikely to happen and is capable of being proven false.
Critiques of Falsificationism
Just as theories are falsifiable, observational facts can also be used to falsify them.
Solution: We must distinguish between public statements and private observational perceptions. Observations are only valid if they are public, undertaken by different individuals, and provide the same result.
- If the falsificationist method were applied consistently, many current scientific theories would fail.
- A scientific theory is very complex, consisting of different elements. If a theory is falsified, one component may have failed, but determining which one is difficult.
Kuhn and the Theory of Scientific Revolutions
The history of science shows that Popper’s model does not accurately reflect how real scientists proceed, as they often remain attached to their theories and stick to them.
In every scientific theory, there is an unchangeable core principle: the Paradigm. A paradigm is a conceptual framework of methodological assumptions and intertwined theories that defines the field of vision of a specific scientific community, forming their worldview while simultaneously building it.
Stages of Scientific Development
Pre-Science
- No established paradigm exists.
- Scientists collect data and develop theories that attempt to interpret reality.
- Two or more models may compete until one is imposed, eliminating others.
- There is a lack of agreement on key issues.
- Constant debates among scientists generate as many theories as scientists involved.
Normal Science
This stage uses the paradigm accepted by the scientific community. It involves the regular work of scientists:
- Elaborating on the paradigm and expanding it through new and thorough investigations.
- Developing problem-solving activity governed by paradigm rules.
- Addressing minor criticisms of the reigning paradigm.
Crisis
Events and experiments generate contradictions, known as anomalies, with the established paradigm. A severe anomaly is sufficient cause for replacing the paradigm. An anomaly is serious when:
- It affects the fundamentals of the paradigm.
- It lasts a long time.
- Several anomalies accumulate.
Crises are more severe when a radically different rival paradigm emerges. Consequently, the world is viewed differently.
Scientific Revolution
This is the abandonment of one paradigm and the adoption of a new one by the scientific community.
- The number of anomalies becomes unsustainable.
- The scientific community begins to accept the possibility that the official paradigm is wrong, and the alternative paradigm starts to gain currency.
- After a period of struggle, the old paradigm is replaced by the new.
- Once the new paradigm is established, the community enters a stage of Normal Science.
Examples of Paradigms
- Creationist paradigm
- Big Bang Theory
- God creates man and woman (as a specific belief system)
- Evolutionary paradigm
The Problem of Crisis
Scientists are often unwilling to discard their life’s work. They seek concrete solutions without abandoning the existing paradigm. However, alternative explanations for these anomalies emerge on the outskirts of research, implying that an alternative paradigm is taking shape.