Political Turmoil in Spain: The Democratic Sexenio and the First Republic
Spain’s Democratic Sexenio: 1868-1874
In 1868, Spain’s deepening economic and political crisis culminated in widespread instability. A financial crisis, triggered by failing railway investments, coincided with an industrial crisis in the cotton sector and a severe food shortage. General O’Donnell, leading a moderate government, suppressed a revolt by sergeants at the San Gil barracks who demanded reforms but was subsequently removed from power.
The Revolution of 1868 and the Provisional Government
In September 1868, to resolve this volatile situation, Progressives and Democrats signed the Pact of Ostend, seizing power and dethroning Queen Isabella II, who was exiled to France. In October, the signatories established a provisional government. They dissolved the revolutionary juntas and disarmed the National Militia.
This new government, led by Serrano as regent and Prim as president, initiated significant reforms. These included freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and association, universal male suffrage, education reform, democratization of municipalities, and the emancipation of children of slaves in the colonies. Elections for a new parliament were called under universal male suffrage. The victorious liberals drafted a new constitution reflecting their ideology, which was adopted in 1869.
The Constitution of 1869
The 1869 Constitution was Spain’s most liberal to date. It proclaimed national sovereignty, established universal male suffrage for men over 25, and instituted a democratic monarchy with limited powers for the king. It also guaranteed religious freedom and included a comprehensive bill of rights, such as freedom of assembly and association. Power was divided among three branches: the executive (Council of Ministers), the legislative (Cortes, composed of Congress and Senate), and the judiciary (courts).
In terms of economic policy, the peseta was established as the national currency, and some state-owned mines were sold to improve public finances.
The Reign of Amadeo I
The government sought a new monarch among European royal families, ultimately choosing Amadeo I, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. However, upon his arrival in Spain, his main supporter, General Prim, was assassinated. Amadeo I faced widespread opposition from Carlists, Republicans, and supporters of Alfonso (son of Isabella II), known as Alfonsinos. The coalition that had brought him to power began to fracture. His reign was marked by significant political instability, leading to his abdication after just two years. He then returned to Italy.
The First Spanish Republic: 1873-1874
On February 11, 1873, the First Spanish Republic was proclaimed by a Cortes lacking a Republican majority. The Republic had limited social support and faced opposition from influential groups and institutions. The weakness of the Republican regime resulted in extreme political instability, with four presidents in a single year: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar.
The Republic initiated a series of reforms, many of which backfired: the abolition of the consumption tax, the elimination of the *quintas* (military conscription), the reduction of the voting age to 21, the separation of Church and State, the regulation of child labor, and a project to establish a federal republic.
The Republic faced numerous challenges: a new Carlist War in the Basque Country and Navarre, cantonalist uprisings by extremist Republicans, the ongoing war in Cuba (since 1868), and military conspiracies aimed at restoring Alfonso XII to the throne.
The End of the Republic
On January 3, 1874, General Pavía staged a military coup, dissolving the Cortes. A new government, headed by General Serrano, suspended the constitution and the rights and freedoms associated with the Republic. This situation lasted for another year.
The Bourbon Restoration was ultimately precipitated by a military coup led by General Martínez Campos on December 29, 1874. Alfonso XII was proclaimed King of Spain, marking the end of the Democratic Sexenio and the First Republic.