Political, Economic, and Social Transformations in 18th-19th Century Europe
Introduction to Liberalism
Liberalism is a political, economic, and social current that emerged in Europe during the eighteenth century. It opposed the old regime and served as the ideological basis for the bourgeois revolutions of the nineteenth century.
Political Spectrum of Liberalism
The most influential thinkers in its design were Montesquieu, Locke, and Rousseau. Its fundamental principles are:
- National Sovereignty
- Division of Powers
- Constitution-Making
- Recognition of Individual Rights and Freedoms
- The Right to Vote
The establishment of political liberalism brought about a number of representative bodies, such as courts, parliaments, legislatures, and city councils.
Economic Dimension of Liberalism
Economic liberalism was presented by Adam Smith in his “Essay on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” and extended by other economists like David Ricardo. Economic liberalism is the doctrine upon which capitalism was founded and developed.
Its main ideas are:
- General prosperity is achieved through personal enrichment.
- The market regulates itself by the law of supply and demand.
- The state should not intervene in the economy.
Social Dimension of Liberalism
The estate society of the Ancien Régime was replaced by a class society, based on a person’s wealth, not on their lineage. It is an open society. It does not reject religion but tends to limit the economic power of the church.
Liberalism: Current and Opposition
The liberal bourgeois revolution began in Spain with the Cortes of Cadiz and all its legislation, both ordinances and the Constitution of 1812, which became the symbol of liberalism and a reference for subsequent constitutions.
During the reign of Fernando VII, there was a struggle between liberals and absolutists, the latter backed by the king. In the first stage of the reign (1814-1820), Fernando VII annulled the decrees and the Constitution as an absolute monarch and harshly repressed liberals. During this stage, the liberals turned to military takeover as a way to gain power and bring back liberal reforms. After several failed attempts, in 1820, the Riego pronouncement succeeded, giving way to the second stage of his reign. During this period (1820-1823), liberal reforms were re-implemented, and Ferdinand VII was forced to sign the Constitution of 1812. The first division occurred within liberalism, between moderates and progressives.
Fernando VII, contrary to liberalism, sought help from “The Holy Alliance” to restore absolutism. During the third stage of his reign (1823-1833), liberals were once again persecuted, and they, in turn, attempted new pronouncements that failed. After the birth of his daughter, he began a rapprochement with liberal positions to defend her rise to the throne.
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
During the regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840), the liberal revolution began to consolidate, but at the same time, a confrontation developed with the opposition to liberalism by the Carlists. Carlism is a political current, present in contemporary Spanish history, which emerged in the last stage of the reign of Fernando VII. Their motto is: God, Country, King, and Jurisdictions.
The First Carlist War was the most violent and dramatic, with almost 200,000 deaths. The first uprising occurred a few days after the death of Fernando VII.
Carlists had social support from the rural nobility, ultra-conservative members of the administration and the army, most of the lower clergy (especially the regular clergy), the rural poor, and part of the artisan class.
Phases of the First Carlist War
Phase 1: Developed in the Basque Country and Navarra. The Carlists, under the command of Zumalacárregui, had success with a defensive and guerrilla warfare strategy, but his death meant the loss of Carlist initiative.
Phase 2: Carlists changed their strategy and organized expeditions outside their zone, reaching near Cadiz and Madrid.
Phase 3: Carlism suffered an internal crisis. In August 1839, the agreement of Vergara was signed between Carlist general Rafael Maroto and pro-Isabel general Baldomero Espartero. The terms of the agreement set out the negotiation for the maintenance of the jurisdictions in the Basque provinces and Navarra and the integration of Carlist army officers into the royal army.
The division between *doceañistas* (supporters of the 1812 Constitution) and *exaltados* (progressives) eventually converged in the formation of two parties: the Moderate Party and the Progressive Party.
Moderate Party
The Moderate Party represented the interests of big landowners, especially landlords. Their main ideas were:
- Shared sovereignty (King + Cortes)
- The king has greater political powers
- Elitist bicameral courts with a Senate elected by the Crown
- Local authorities chosen by the King
- Limitation of individual rights, especially collective rights
- Census suffrage very restricted
- Fiscal system prioritizing direct taxes over indirect taxes
- Supporters of protectionism
Progressive Party
The Progressive Party represented the interests of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie. Their main ideas were:
- National sovereignty
- The king’s intervention in politics is limited
- Dominance of parliament in the political system but with a bicameral Cortes and an elected Senate
- Defense of individual and certain collective rights
- Census suffrage less restrictive than the moderates
- Local authorities elected by the people
- Supporters of free trade
Reign of Elizabeth II (1833-1868)
During the reign of Elizabeth II, differences within these two parties gave rise to two new parties:
- In 1845, the Liberal Union was formed, drawing its members from the most moderate wing of progressivism.
- In 1849, the Democratic Party was formed. Democrats advocated for universal male suffrage, unicameral Cortes, state intervention in education, and a new tax system to alleviate social differences.
During this reign, opposition to liberalism came from the Carlists, leading to the Second Carlist War (1846-1849).
The Third Carlist War began during the Revolutionary Sexenio stage and ended during the reign of Alfonso XII.
During this stage, opposition to liberalism came from the Carlists and the labor movement (Marxism and anarchism).