Plato’s Theory of Ideas and Political Philosophy
Plato’s Political Philosophy and the Ideal State
He complained that the political system of his time was deeply flawed. He believed that rulers should strive for a perfect and complete vision of what is right. This could only be achieved if true philosophers occupied public office or if those in power became true philosophers.
Although Plato favored an aristocratic form of government, he did not align himself with the Thirty Tyrants. Furthermore, while not a supporter of democracy, he strongly opposed egalitarian ideas. He believed, contrary to the Sophists, that excellence (arete) was attainable only by a select few. He also criticized the decision-making process of democracies (rule by majority), arguing that people were vulnerable to manipulation and the demagoguery of politicians who prioritized self-interest over the well-being of Athens.
Plato was a reformer who sought to halt the decline of the polis. His intention was to establish a new foundation for political order. This foundation would be based on an order of universal values, capable of ensuring the stability of a just society. His ultimate goal was to educate citizens in these values.
Combating Sophistry: Ethics and Knowledge
For Plato, the ills of the polis were a direct result of Sophist theories. He dedicated himself to combating them. From an ethical-political perspective, he fought against the conventionalism and moral relativism inherent in Sophist thought, which asserted that ethical and political norms were merely matters of opinion. Instead, Plato affirmed the existence of an order of universal values.
From the perspective of the theory of knowledge, he had to combat the Sophists’ gnoseological relativism and skepticism. He aimed to demonstrate that it was indeed possible to discover these universal values.
The Theory of Ideas: Appearance vs. Reality
Plato believed that the reality we perceive through our senses is merely an appearance, a shadow of a true, unchanging, and permanent reality. This true reality allows for firm, sure, and absolute knowledge.
He explained his theory of ideas through the *Myth of the Cave*, which is indispensable for understanding his conception of reality and knowledge.
According to Plato, if we free ourselves from the chains of received education and the prejudices arising from our senses, we can recognize a duality of realities. One reality (the sensible world) is merely a copy of the other, which is authentic reality (the world of Ideas).
Levels of Reality and Knowledge
Delving deeper, we can establish levels of being (shadows of things, artificial things, real things, and shadows of real things) and corresponding levels of knowledge.
This duality of realities implies an ontological dualism (things and Ideas belonging to two distinct worlds). Ideas are a reality in the fullest sense, possessing a separate and independent existence. Each Idea is unique, universal, eternal, immutable, and immaterial. Things, on the other hand, are numerous, diverse, have a beginning and an end, are material, and are constantly changing.
The Superiority of Ideas
Plato demonstrates the superiority of Ideas over things by highlighting two types of dependence of things on Ideas:
- Ontological Dependence: Things imitate Ideas; Ideas are the cause of things. For example, the moon is beautiful because it imitates or participates in the Idea of Beauty.
- Gnoseological Dependence: Ideas are the foundation of all judgments we make about things. For example, if we say something is beautiful, it is because we have knowledge of the Idea of Beauty and recognize it.
Platonic Idealism
Platonic Idealism is the ontological assertion that there are two kinds of reality: the authentic reality of Ideas, which are only fully intelligible in the intelligible world, and the sensible world, which is real only to the extent that it imitates or participates in the intelligible world.
Revisions and Access to Knowledge
Revisions to the theory of Ideas included:
- Considering what kinds of things could have corresponding Ideas.
- Establishing different hierarchies of Ideas.
How do we access the knowledge of Ideas? Through recollection (as illustrated by the myth of the winged chariot) and the dialectical method (inspired by Socrates).
The Soul and the Body
The soul and the body are of different natures, and their union is accidental and transitory.
- Doctrine of *soma-sema* (body as tomb): The body is a prison for the soul.
- Reincarnation and Transmigration of Souls: The soul undergoes cycles of rebirth.
- Purification, Moral Virtue, and Intellectual Knowledge: The soul must be purified through virtue and knowledge.
Parts of the Soul and Their Virtues
- Rational Aspect: Its proper function is knowledge and it resides in the head. Its virtue is wisdom.
- Irascible Aspect: Governs noble sentiments, guided by honor and fame. It resides in the chest. Its virtue is fortitude.
- Concupiscible Aspect: Governs passions and bodily desires. It resides in the abdomen. Its virtue is moderation.