Plato’s Theory of Forms and Political Philosophy

Posted on Nov 30, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Plato

1. Theory of Ideas

Birth of the Theory of Ideas

  • At the time of Plato, during a period of decline, Relativism was the prevailing culture. This included Moral Relativism (nothing is inherently good or bad, it depends on perception) and Political Relativism (“Justice depends on force”). In this view, nothing is objectively true or false; everything depends on rhetoric.
  • Relativism was based on demagoguery and the Sophists, for whom everything depended on rhetoric or the ability to convince others. Plato questioned Relativism and sought to return to the original belief in objective truth and a separate reality, not to attack the Sophists.
  • Another cause for the birth of the Theory of Ideas was the logical extension of Socrates’ theory: To know what a good, brave, or just deed is, we must first know the concepts of goodness, courage, and justice. However, while Socrates applied this idea only to ethics, Plato applied it to reality in general.

In his Metaphysics, Aristotle explains that the Theory of Ideas was born from two opposing philosophies:

  1. The philosophy of Socrates: Truth is found in ideas.
  2. The philosophy of Heraclitus: Everything is constantly changing, making knowledge impossible.

According to Plato, true knowledge must be based not on things but on ideas (which remain unchanged). The reality of things lies in the Ideas.

The World of “Things” and “Ideas”

  • Relationship between the World of “Things” and “Ideas”: The Timaeus. In his quest for truth, Plato divides reality into these two worlds, establishing a gap between them. The only connection between the world of Ideas and things is the human soul. It belongs to both groups and is temporarily in the world of things, but tends to move towards the world of Ideas: The soul is trapped, but its true nature is not earthly. Plato makes this division to distinguish between true ideas and doxa (opinion), since true reality exists independently of opinions.
  • The two worlds are mythically presented as separate physical realities (one of the most contentious issues criticized by Aristotle). Plato explains the Ideas through myths, as in The Timaeus, where he describes the relationship between things and Ideas. There is a Demiurge (craftsman) who creates the world as a copy of the Ideas. (This demiurge is not the Christian God who “created” the world from nothing; by creating a copy of Ideas, the demiurge acknowledges their superiority). Ideas are perfect models, and things are imperfect copies that mimic or participate in these Ideas (reality comes to things from Ideas).
  • Ideas: What are they? Plato never explicitly defined the concept of an Idea but explained it through myths and indirect discussions. In Platonic philosophy, this concept evolves over time.
    1. In early dialogues, Ideas have a Socratic conception. Their meaning is universal and logical; they are universal concepts with grammatical meaning: “the idea of man is the concept ‘man’.”
    2. Gradually, in later dialogues, the concept takes on a Platonic meaning: it signifies the essence of things, not just their truth. True reality lies in Ideas, not in things. They also become a kind of “exemplary cause” of things: Ideas serve as models for things. There is a teleological (finalist) aspect to this reality: things strive towards an end or perfection, and to be truly real is to align with the Ideas.

Structure of the World of Ideas

Not all Ideas are equally important; they exist in a hierarchical pyramid.

The lowest rank belongs to numbers. One of the maxims of the Academy was that nobody could enter if they didn’t know mathematics, as mathematical training was considered a way to leave the physical world and reach the world of Ideas. Next are ideas of things, followed by ethical ideas. At the top of the pyramid is the Idea of Good: The Idea that gives meaning to all others. It is expressed as beauty (the aesthetic manifestation of the Good) and as truth (the epistemological manifestation). Good is more than a moral idea: It is the principle that ensures everything is in its proper place. Plato does not directly explain the Idea of Good but uses metaphors: “It’s like the sun in the world of things; the sun makes things visible.” The Good illuminates the other Ideas.

2. Plato’s Politics

Platonic State

In his political philosophy, Plato presents an ideal state. It is debated whether this is a utopian proposal to explain the concept of justice through myth or a political system meant to be put into practice. According to Plato, it is “a model that is in heaven for men to realize in their souls.” If implemented, it would be a totalitarian state, a dictatorship.

What is Justice?

For Plato, a good state is a just state. But what is justice? He draws a parallel between “individual justice” (the harmonious regulation of the three parts of the soul) and the justice of the polis (city-state). These concepts are intertwined because in Platonic philosophy, there is no distinction between ethics and politics.

There are two meanings to the concept of justice:

  1. Order. A just activity is an orderly activity, and Plato explains social order through the theory of the soul (parallelism between the individual and the polis). For a society to be ordered, each person should engage in the activity that corresponds to their nature, as there are three types of people, directly related to the three parts of the soul (in each type of person, a different part of the soul predominates). Education is essential for this, as it distinguishes individuals and should vary according to whether the appetitive, spirited, or rational part of the soul is dominant. Education can guide individuals to become:
    • Artisans and Producers: The appetitive part of the soul predominates. They produce the material goods of the polis.
    • Guardians: The spirited part is most developed. They are responsible for defending the polis, have no private property, and their life is dedicated to the polis.
    • Rulers: Rulers come from the guardians. They have the most developed rational part (parallel to the soul theory, where the rational part governs the others).
  2. Philosopher King. In later dialogues, Plato abandons the idea that the three parts of the soul correspond directly to three types of people. Those who have the most knowledge (in the Platonic sense of knowledge about the world of Ideas), i.e., those with the most developed rational part, should govern. Plato identifies theoretical knowledge with practical knowledge: those who know should rule, as they understand goodness and justice. This thesis opposes the Sophist view that anyone can govern.