Plato’s Theory of Forms and Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics
Plato’s World of Ideas
Plato posits two worlds: the sensible world of appearances perceived by the senses, and the intelligible world of Ideas. Doxa concerns the sensible world’s objects, not constituting true knowledge, while episteme concerns the intelligible world’s objects, the authentic reality.
Ideas are substances, the authentic reality. The supreme Idea is that of the Good, illuminating all others and holding them in being.
Plato believed in the preexistence of souls, referencing pre-existing Ideas, which are of the same nature as the soul. Souls are accidentally attached to the body.
The soul’s ability to remember Ideas indicates its prior existence in the realm of Ideas, containing all rational ideals, axioms, and logical-mathematical principles.
We seek Ideas within the soul to bring forth its inherent nature (Ideas, ideals, principles). However, no Idea arises without a material reality. The incarnate soul forgets, requiring recollection through education and learning, as one cannot remember what they have not learned.
Plato uses “Ideas” to represent concepts unconditioned by any specific instance; for example, the Idea of a tree applies to all trees, unseen or yet to exist.
The relationship between the sensible and intelligible worlds lies in our soul-understanding, the Platonic ontology. Ideas are far-reaching; things participate in or imitate Ideas, which are perfect in a linguistic sense.
Accessing True Knowledge
To access true knowledge (soul-understanding), Plato proposes ascending dialectic, with two stages:
- Stage 1 (Sensitive Knowledge): Provides opinion (Doxa), divided into:
- Images (imperfect knowledge, shadows or images).
- Belief (direct, sensitive vision of things).
- Stage 2 (Intelligible Knowledge): Provides science (episteme), dispensing with the material to work with intelligible knowledge. Divided into:
- Discursive Knowledge (reasoning, requiring education in the relevant science).
- Intuitive Knowledge (pure science, perceiving what is through full vision, without reason).
Intelligible knowledge is unattainable without passing through the sensitive.
Aristotle’s Ethics
Ethics reflects on the goals humans should achieve; unethical actions hinder achieving them. Aristotle’s ethics proposes ideas for achieving human ends.
Happiness (eudaimonia) is the central theme.
Most actions aim for a higher good: working, studying, earning money, feeling accomplished. Every action seeks a greater degree of happiness.
Defining Happiness
Ethics aims to define happiness, based on human nature and rational faculties. Thus, the human purpose is an “activity of the soul according to reason,” and happiness is the perfection of rationality.
For Aristotle, virtue is the perfection of rationality and practical intelligence. Happiness lies not just in exercising rationality, but in perfecting it.
Virtue and Habits
Virtue arises from habits, not innate or taught, but developed through exercise. Rational excellence requires constant effort. Aristotle divides virtues into rational and ethical:
- Rational Virtues: Science, wisdom, art, and prudence, setting the ideal of happiness but unattainable without ethical virtues.
- Ethical Virtues: Related to conduct, choosing the mean between extremes determined by reason (no mean exists for wrongdoing like theft or murder). These include fortitude, temperance, liberality, modesty, gentleness, and justice. Justice encompasses all other ethical virtues, creating harmony within individuals and their relationships.
Friendship and the Good Life
Aristotle considers friendship a practical synthesis of virtues, a basic agreement over differences based on solidarity and affection.
He defines two conditions for the good life:
- Combining rational and ethical virtues.
- Combining contemplative and active life.
Complete happiness requires intellectual virtues and certain bodily assets: good health and prosperity in work and business.