Plato’s Dualism: Soul, Body, and Reincarnation
Plato’s Anthropological Dualism
Plato believes that human beings are composed of two distinct elements, the body and the soul, which are accidentally united. This dualistic view results from a confluence of Orphic-Pythagorean influence and metaphysical elements inherent in Platonic philosophy itself. Without this view, his theory of knowledge could hardly be explained, as developed in his dialogues of maturity: Phaedo, Phaedrus, and The Republic.
Platonic anthropology is developed through the following key assumptions:
- The Immortality of the Soul: A fundamental tenet of Platonic thought.
- Theory of Metempsychosis: The belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of souls.
- Body as Prison: The doctrine that the body (mortal and material) is a prison for the soul (which is immortal and akin to the Forms/Ideas).
Arguments for Soul Immortality
Plato presents several arguments to demonstrate the immortality of the soul:
Metaphysical Argument: Based on the Theory of Forms
The argument used is that the soul can know what is intelligible and eternal—the unchanging Forms (Ideas). To grasp these, the soul must be of a related nature, as “like knows like.” Therefore, if the Forms are immutable and eternal, the soul must also be.
The double dimension of the world (sensible and intelligible) corresponds to a more marked dualism in man: the body captures the sensible, and the soul captures the intelligible.
Epistemological Argument: Based on the Theory of Anamnesis (Recollection)
This argument is based on the idea of reminiscence. If knowledge is recalled, it is necessary that the soul lived before in a reality where it could perceive what it now remembers. Therefore, the soul must have always existed and is immortal.
Ethical and Moral Argument
Besides epistemological interests, moral interests also concur on the need to affirm the immortality of the soul. If the soul perished at death, it would be left without basic moral principles that posit a reward for virtue and punishment for vice or evil.
Plato’s Theory of Metempsychosis
The soul is immortal, has always existed, and originally lived in the world of Forms (Ideas). To describe this, Plato uses the Pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis, which he extends and presents in two mythical versions. Let’s examine the first:
Myth of the Winged Chariot (from Phaedrus)
The soul is compared to a chariot with two winged horses driven by a charioteer. This represents the rational aspect of man. The two horses represent: one, the noble and courageous aspect (spirited); the other, the rebellious and desirous aspect (appetitive). The charioteer must impose its leadership on the horses, guiding them successfully into the divine world of Forms. However, this journey is difficult, and humans, often living very attached to earthly things, are unable to soar to the celestial universe.
The “wings” of the horses grow with the knowledge acquired of the Forms, as this depends on our ability to act virtuously. Their strength depends on the lifestyle adopted during incarnation: whether it has been dedicated to knowledge and the practice of virtue or not.
The union of knowledge and virtue outlines a path to escape the cycle of reincarnation. The more one focuses on knowledge in earthly life, the more virtuous one becomes, and thus the more robust the soul’s wings. This allows for a more enduring observation of the world of Forms post mortem, potentially leading to liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Paradoxical Aspects of Plato’s Soul Conception
In Plato’s conception of the soul, with its mixture of metaphysical and religious elements, some paradoxical aspects remain:
- Philosophy as Preparation for Death: The soul must escape the body; death is a desired outcome. This event only affects the body; the soul benefits from joining the intelligible realm. It marks the beginning of the soul’s true life (spiritual life), a flight from the body and a search for the intelligible.