Philosophical Shifts: From Rituals to Posthuman Identity
The Disappearance of Rituals in Modern Society
In The Disappearance of Rituals, Byung-Chul Han argues that modern society is characterized by a loss of traditional rituals, resulting in a lack of meaning and direction in people’s lives. He defines rituals as “repetitive, symbolic actions that are carried out collectively,” which serve to create a sense of community and provide individuals with a sense of purpose and belonging.
Han contends that the rise of individualism and technology has led to a decline in the importance of rituals, as people increasingly seek to define their identities on their own terms and through digital means. As a result, Han suggests that modern society has become fragmented and lacking in a shared sense of values and purpose. Han’s work raises important questions about the role of ritual in contemporary life and the impact of technology on our social and cultural practices.
Foundational Challenges to Human Centrality
1. Galileo: The Center of Creativity
Galileo’s work evidenced a conflict between religion and science in Western society. He presented experimental evidence of his findings and published the results, allowing anyone to repeat his experiments. His findings opposed the authority of Aristotle and the Bible.
- Example: He found that the Earth was not at the center of the Universe.
Before Galileo, humanity believed itself to be super special; Galileo was the first to prove that we are not the center of the world.
2. Darwin: Superiority to Animals Challenged
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Darwin put forward a scientific hypothesis for human origins. The Theory of Evolution supports the view that older forms of life evolved into later ones through a process of Natural Selection, whereby organisms that could adapt better to their surroundings survived and reproduced, while those that could not adapt well disappeared.
The Darwinian Model emphasizes the continued progress of growth and adaptation in the struggle between competing organisms and claims that Man evolved from animals.
3. Freud: The Free and Rational Individual Debunked
Freud tried to frame the concept of the unconscious mind scientifically based on his conception of “unconsciousness,” “unconscious desires,” and “repression.” He proposed a divided mind, whereby different levels or parts of the mind struggled for dominance, where a primitive will existed beyond the conscious sphere.
Freud invented psychoanalysis, suggesting that we do not have souls, but rather that we are the product of our dreams and unconscious drives.
4. Marx: The Spiritual Dimension and Materialism
Marx’s theories about society, economy, and politics sustain that all societies advance through the dialectic struggle between classes. His focus and praxis are materialistic. He was very critical of the contemporaneous socioeconomic form of capitalism, believing that capitalism had developed means of production that favored the governing classes.
Why Important: The ideas we have do not come from the outside world; they come from material conditions established previously.
5. Friedrich Nietzsche: Slavish Morality
Nietzsche sustained the point of view that there were two types of fundamental moral systems born of the Christian tradition:
- The Morality of Love (Master Morality): Values pride, strength, and nobility. It measures actions based on good or bad consequences.
- The Morality of Slaves: Values kindness, humility, and compassion. It measures actions based on good or bad intentions.
Modern Philosophical Currents and Identity
Nihilism: The Rejection of Meaning and Truth
Nihilism is a philosophical belief that life and existence have no inherent meaning, purpose, or value. Nihilists reject religious, moral, and social values, considering them to be human inventions without any objective reality or authority. It is a rejection of any moral code because “morals” simply do not exist. It is also a rejection of “truth.”
Nihilism can be seen as an extreme form of skepticism, in which all beliefs and values are subject to doubt and questioning. Nihilists often view the world as meaningless, absurd, and indifferent to human concerns, leading to a sense of despair, apathy, or detachment.
There are different types of nihilism:
- Metaphysical Nihilism: Denies the existence of any objective reality.
- Moral Nihilism: Denies the existence of any objective moral values.
- Existential Nihilism: Focuses on the absence of inherent meaning in human existence.
- Political Nihilism: Rejects the legitimacy of political systems and institutions.
Nietzsche famously declared that “God is dead” and advocated for a form of nihilism that would lead to the creation of new values and the affirmation of life. However, nihilism is generally seen as a controversial and challenging philosophy, as it challenges many commonly held beliefs and values.
Humanism: Reason, Dignity, and Self-Determination
Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence over acceptance of dogma or superstition.
It is a worldview that focuses on human beings, their values, dignity, and capacity for self-determination. It emphasizes reason, science, and rational inquiry as the best ways to understand the world and solve problems, rather than relying on faith, authority, or tradition. Humanists generally believe that individuals should be free to think and act as they choose, so long as their actions do not harm others.
Humanism has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, emerged distinctly during the Renaissance, and has since evolved. Key principles include respect for human dignity, human rights, equality, freedom, and social justice. In modern times, humanism is often associated with secularism, atheism, and agnosticism.
The Posthuman Turn: Transhumanism vs. Posthumanism
Posthumanism and Transhumanism are philosophical currents that both focus on the changes technology and science are generating in the human condition. Some argue that Humanism today is dying because we are living in the age of Posthumanism and Transhumanism.
Transhumanism: Seeking Natural Perfection
Transhumanism is an international, intellectual, and cultural movement whose final objective is to transform the human condition through the development and fabrication of technologies that improve human capabilities at the physical, psychological, and intellectual level. It studies the beneficial possibilities and dangers of new technologies that can help overcome fundamental human limitations and seeks to find an adequate ethics for the development and use of these technologies.
- FM-2030: Associated with the concept of “Natural Perfection.”
- View of Technology: Generally positive view of robots and Artificial Intelligence (AI).
Ian Wilmut and Dolly the Sheep
Ian Wilmut is known principally for being the leader of a group of researchers who cloned an animal from an adult cell for the first time in 1996. This Finn Dorset Lamb, baptized as Dolly the Sheep, caused a significant ethical shock regarding the concept of the “Creature of God.”
Posthumanism: Redefining the Human
Posthumanism arises as a response to technological and scientific advances that have allowed the manipulation of the human body and the creation of artificial beings. Posthumanism proposes a redefinition of what it means to be human, raising the possibility of a fusion between the human being and technology, which would allow the creation of hybrid beings with superhuman abilities.
This futuristic vision also raises ethical and moral questions about the role of technology in our society and how it will affect our sense of identity and community.
- View of Technology: Generally negative view of robots and Artificial Intelligence (AI).
- Related Concepts: Often related to Nihilism (no truth, nothing is important) and Relativism (everything is relative).
Byung-Chul Han’s Critique of Posthumanism
In his work, Han argues that digital culture has generated a hyperactive and neurotic society. For Han, posthumanism is a form of alienation that seeks the elimination of human fragility and mortality. Instead of accepting our finite condition, posthumanism invites us to seek immortality and perfection through technology.