Philosophical Perspectives on the State of Nature and Society
Thomas Hobbes
Human Bestiality
Human bestiality manifests primarily in:
- An inclination to meet unlimited needs (desire for domination)
- Defense of one’s life (survival)
The state of nature describes man before society. Every man is perfectly independent of others, coupled with total distrust towards their peers. This causes a war of all against all, where man’s life is solitary. Hobbes argued that order comes from a higher power, creating a single entity capable of providing religion, politics, and morality, applying the power of the state (army). Individuals have an obligation to obey.
John Locke
State of Nature vs. Civilized Society
Locke analyzes the political situation by contrasting the state of nature with civilized society. Key features of the state of nature are:
- Perfect freedom: Man can order actions and dispose of possessions and person as desired.
- Equality: No one has more power or jurisdiction than another.
- Private property: An individual’s basic right against prejudice from any other power.
In conflict, individuals and families advocate for themselves, taking the law into their own hands. To prevent this, a society is created through a covenant, leading to a civil state by consent. Locke views society as a product of the social contract, where man gives up unnatural rights. Marital status is governed by individual consent, submitting to the majority’s determination. Laws serve the public good. Locke champions genuine freedom, equality, and political organizations arising from the will of men. Private property is an untouchable natural right, free from state intervention. Locke proposes a division of state activities: legislative, executive, and federative.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract and the General Will
Rousseau defends contractarian individualism, conceiving of man as naturally good, spontaneously innocent, and free. In this state of nature, each is self-sufficient. Due to artificiality in living, initial goodness and private property disappear, leading to inequality. Rousseau aims to build a society where men regain natural equality, kindness, freedom, and happiness through a social contract. Individuals waive traditional privileges, but not innate or natural rights. The social contract stems from the general will, prevailing over all societal components. The general will is defined qualitatively and quantitatively. Man is sociable by nature, voluntarily social to regain the state of nature where his being is fully realized.
David Hume
Critique of the State of Nature and Social Contract
Hume analyzes the state of nature and social contract, concluding they lack empirical basis. He is liberal and individualistic. The state is formed by individuals united by social conventions and customs. Citizens live under a sovereign by tacit consent, not contract, but habit. Society helps men meet their needs. Hume favors democratic government. Duties arise from instinct, feelings of obligation, or coercion, forming habits. Justice is a social convention ensuring citizen security and independence. It is relative, not absolute, divine, or eternal.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Civil Society vs. the State
Hegel distinguishes between civil society and the state, prioritizing the latter over individuals. Civil society is a community with purposes beyond private interests. The state is aware of a higher, transcendent mission, a manifestation of the Universal Spirit. It cannot be subject to individual opinions. The state embodies the spirit of a people, manifesting the Universal Spirit’s requirements. It mentors and guides. Legislative and executive power are unlimited. Individual aspirations should align with the Universal Spirit, not impede individual freedom.
Karl Marx
Materialism and the Evolution of Society
Marx’s materialism argues that men originated in an animal society, entirely subject to the community. Individual awareness developed later, though initially, social instinct prevailed. Selfish individuals appropriated equality, creating duality, competition, and negative behaviors. Marx believed excessive individualism would cause its downfall, leading to a classless society where individuals regain lost social sense, prioritizing the group and its rights and duties.