Philosophical Perspectives on Society and State
Historical Views on Social Origin
To understand the concept of social origin, we can examine its interpretations throughout history.
Classical & Medieval Foundations
In Classical Antiquity, social origin was considered natural, a view that persisted into the Middle Ages. Authors such as Aristotle and Aquinas agreed on a natural source for the social: the subject is incapable of living alone and possesses language as a communication and learning tool.
Modern Age: Social Contract Theories
In the Modern Age, society came to be understood by social contract theorists (Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau) as a result of human will—a covenant made to secure the natural rights that human beings possess. The individual is prior to the formation of society, and it is their will that leads them to live in a social state.
Marxist Critique of Social Origin
In contrast to these concepts, Marx, in the nineteenth century, stated that social man is outside his control, shaped by industrial relations. This sociability is the result of transformative material activity and the impact nature has on the fruit of labor relations. For Marx, the individual relates to nature through work, and work is the driving force that shapes society. There is no natural constitution or origin pact.
Societal Structure Through History
Regarding the structure of society, a hierarchy has always existed, though its forms have evolved.
Ancient & Medieval Hierarchies
- In ancient Roman society, divisions included:
- Patricians
- Equites
- Plebeians
- Slaves
- During the Middle Ages, society was structured around:
- Feudal lords
- Vassals
- Masters
- Guild officers
- Serfs
Modern Bourgeois Society
Modern bourgeois society saw the rise of two primary classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. As we move through history, we observe how old forms of hierarchy break down, giving way to new ones.
Philosophical Proposals for Society
Different authors have made various proposals for societal structure:
Plato’s Class System
Plato proposed a society divided into classes (rulers/philosophers, guardians/warriors, farmers) without implying the dominance of one over others. While there was no equality between classes, there were also no privileges. All community members were considered equally necessary.
Aristotle on Natural Inequality
Aristotle argued that inequality is natural, as society inherently possesses a hierarchical structure. Some are born to rule, and others to be governed. He advocated for a mixed government, a Republic, that would enable the political participation of a large middle class.
Medieval Hierarchical Defense
During the Middle Ages, authors continued to defend natural hierarchy. To avoid conflicts between classes, it was deemed necessary to strengthen the papacy through estate monarchies. The king was ultimately subject to religious authorities.
Modern Natural Rights & Property
In the Modern Age, the defense of natural rights became paramount:
- Locke emphasized property (life, liberty, and estate). He argued that everyone has the right to own everything they can generate with their work, making work the foundation of property. Thus, the state proposed by Locke would be a liberal, representative democracy.
- Rousseau championed equality and freedom, advocating for a social and direct democracy.
- Kant argued that society must be articulated so that the rights of all its members are guaranteed, and each individual constitutes an end in themselves.
The State’s Purpose: A Philosophical Journey
The purpose of the state has also been a central theme in philosophical thought:
Classical Antiquity’s State Goals
- For Plato, the state’s purpose was the general interest, with justice as its core.
- For Aristotle, it was happiness, with justice serving as a tool for achieving it.
Medieval State & Divine Essence
For medieval authors, the State’s essence was contemplating God, and its purpose was the common good.
Contractarian State & Individual Rights
For contractarian thinkers, the State must guarantee citizens’ civil and political rights. It is a liberal bourgeois state serving individual interests, particularly those of the bourgeoisie who own the means of production.
Marx’s Vision: The Communist State
Marx considered property a result of theft, with its objective being capital appreciation. While labor is the foundation of property, under capitalist conditions of production, property is seized from the workers. Marx proposed eliminating the bourgeois state and establishing a communist state, which would guarantee social rights and equality for all citizens, promoting a classless society.