Philosophical Foundations of Morality and Action

Posted on Nov 10, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Foundations of Ethics

Definition of Ethics:

• Ethics is the study of our own behavior to help us become better people.
• It is a branch of philosophy that focuses on understanding human actions from a moral point of view.
• The purpose of ethics is to reflect on what we should do to improve ourselves and society.

Why is Ethics Important?

• All actions have consequences—they can help or harm ourselves and others.
• By acting ethically, we become better persons and contribute to the common good.

Key Point: “Ethics guides us to use our powers and freedoms in the right way, so that we improve ourselves and society.”

Love and Ethical Living

The Role of Love in Ethics:

Love is often forgotten but is essential in ethical life. What we love (values, people, ideals) shapes our behavior deeply.

• If we only love ourselves: leads to a selfish, closed heart.
• If we love others: leads to an open heart and generosity.

Positive Effects of Love:

Love leads to sacrifice, dedication, and altruism (helping others without expecting anything in return).

Negative Effects of Distorted Love:

Distorted love can cause obsession, manipulation, and destruction (e.g., jealousy, toxic relationships).

Key Point: “Love must be ordered by reason and virtue, to serve the good of ourselves and others.”

Factors Determining Social Influence

On what does the extent of our personal social influence depend?

Factors of Influence:

1. Power (Potestas)

• Quantity: How many people we influence.
• Quality: How deep or valuable the influence is (e.g., a wise teacher vs. a celebrity).

2. Authority

• Epistemological: Authority based on truth and knowledge.
• Moral/Deontological: Authority based on goodness, fairness, and justice.

3. Culture

• Culture shapes laws and norms, which influence what is seen as right or wrong.
• Laws have effects:
  • Legal = right.
  • Illegal = wrong.

Key Point: “Our influence depends both on personal qualities (truth and moral example) and the cultural norms that shape society.”

Private Actions, Social Consequences

• Even private behaviors have a social impact.
• Example: Drinking bottled water has environmental effects (plastic waste).
• Ethics teaches us to be responsible even in small, everyday actions.

Key Point: “Every personal action contributes to building a moral or immoral culture.”

Tolerance and Its Limits

Definition of Tolerance:

Tolerance means respecting others, avoiding prejudice, and allowing diverse opinions or behaviors. It does not mean agreeing with everything.

Limits of Tolerance:

We should not tolerate:

• Injustice.
• Violations of human dignity.

Key Point: “Tolerance is a virtue, but it has limits—it must always protect justice and human dignity.”

The Nature of Forgiveness

Conditions for Real Forgiveness:

Forgiveness involves two persons:

1. One who did wrong (acting with responsibility—a free and intentional action).
2. The other who chooses to forgive.

The Act of Forgiving:

Forgiving is an act of will that must be free. It requires proper attitudes: love, patience, and respect.

Distinction: Forgiving vs. Excusing

Forgiving is not excusing. Exculpating (“It doesn’t matter”) is not true forgiveness. Forgiveness recognizes guilt but releases resentment.

Forgiveness and Time:

Time helps forgiveness by providing chances to reflect, dialogue, and heal. However, time alone is not enough; an active choice is needed.

Key Point: “Forgiveness is a free and rational decision to overcome resentment and seek peace, even when the wrongdoer does not show regret—though it is more difficult.”

Major Ethical Theories: Kant

The Supreme Principle of Morality

Morality, according to Kant, means acting from duty, not from personal interest. The Categorical Imperative guides moral action.

3 Key Distinctions in Kantian Ethics:

1. Motivation:

   • Duty vs. Inclination (self-interest). To be moral, one must act for the sake of duty.

2. Freedom:

   • Autonomy: Self-legislation (I give myself the law).
   • Heteronomy: Influenced by others (parents, society).

3. Imperatives:

   • Categorical: Universal, unconditional (“Do X because it is right.”).
   • Hypothetical: Conditional (“If I want Y, then I should do X.”).

Formula to Memorize: “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”

Hypothetical vs. Categorical Imperatives

Hypothetical Imperative:

Based on conditions and personal desires. Example: “If I want to pass, I should study.”

Categorical Imperative:

Universal and unconditional. Example: “I should tell the truth”—applies to everyone, always.

Kant’s View:

Moral behavior must be guided by categorical imperatives, not by personal inclinations.

Key Point: “Ethics must be based on universal principles that all rational beings should follow.”

Aristotle vs. Kant: A Comparison

Aristotle (Virtue Ethics):

• Ethics aims for eudaimonia (happiness, flourishing).
• Happiness comes from living a life in accordance with virtue and reason.
• We must master emotions and desires to act rightly.

Kant (Deontological Ethics):

• Ethics is about duty, not happiness.
• Morality equals acting from respect for the moral law.
• Autonomy is key: we must be guided by reason, not passions.

Summary Comparison

Key Point: “Aristotle focuses on achieving happiness through virtue, Kant focuses on fulfilling duty through respect for universal moral law.”

The Transcendentals of Being

There are three transcendentals: Truth, Good, and Beauty.

Truth

Criticism of Wrong Positions:

• Skepticism: Denies that truth exists. This is self-contradictory, since claiming “there is no truth” is already a truth claim.
• Relativism: Claims each person has their own truth, making all truth relative. This suffers the same logical incoherence as skepticism.
• Emotivism and Neuroscientism: Reduce truth to feelings or brain impulses—a hidden form of skepticism.

Definition of Truth:

Truth is the correspondence between the intellect and reality (adequatio intellectus ad rem).

Good

The good exists and is often considered the same as truth. Some cultures are closer to the objective good than others.

Beauty

Beauty is categorized into two types: physical beauty and metaphysical beauty.

Possible Definitions of Beauty:

1. What pleases the senses.
2. The splendor of form.
3. Harmony between the parts.

Metaphysical Beauty: Refers to beautiful actions (e.g., an act of generosity). The opposite would be betrayal.

Defining Happiness

Happiness is something deeper and more permanent than mere pleasure. It is a way of living life with meaning. It has two components: a personal life project and alignment with human nature.

Values vs. Virtues

Summary Sentence: “Values indicate what we admire; virtues show who we truly are. Virtues are rooted habits acquired through practice and sacrifice, allowing us to act consistently according to the good.”

Moral Action vs. Moralism

This is a very important topic:

Moralism:

• Being hypocritical; separation between being and duty (doing without understanding).
• Acting by inertia, without understanding why.

Moral Action (Morality):

What is good is understanding why we do what we do. Example: I treat others well because I recognize their dignity, not just because of an external rule.

The Structure of Action: Reason, Will, Appetites

Reason:

It is what grasps the truth. Through reason, we know reality (depth, distance, etc.).

Will:

It leads us to tend toward things. Example: I know through reason that I should study, but my appetite wants me to be lazy.

Appetites:

They must be ordered by reason and will. They should not control us.

Freedom:

There is external freedom (extent/freedom of movement).

There is also real and creative freedom (classical freedom).

Internal Freedom (Teleology):

Reality is not neutral; it is organized according to ends. One can only be truly free when aligned with those ends (with the good).