Philosophical Evolution: From Scholasticism to Enlightenment
Saint Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism in the 13th Century
Saint Thomas Aquinas represents the main figure of medieval scholastic philosophy in the 13th century. During this period, a new social class emerged: the bourgeoisie. This class was closely tied to the rise of universities, which were replacing cathedral schools. A new artistic style, Gothic art, also appeared. The prevailing theocentrism influenced philosophy, emphasizing a deep unity and harmony between political and religious power. There was also harmony between faith and reason, as both were seen as originating from God. Reality and society were ordered hierarchically, with God at the center of the structure, forming a pyramid.
Aristotle’s philosophy was accepted as the best conceptual tool to streamline and understand the Christian faith. However, this led to tensions with the Catholic Church, which was rooted in Augustinian philosophy. Saint Thomas Aquinas used reason to connect the Christian faith and philosophy to theology. This is the essence of scholastic philosophy.
Hume and Empiricism in the 18th Century
Although Hume’s empiricism belongs to the 18th century, Locke, a key figure in this movement, lived in the 17th century. Empiricism was a British philosophical current that emerged during the crisis of absolutism in the 17th century. During this time, England and the Netherlands achieved economic hegemony, and a bourgeoisie with political interests emerged. The bourgeoisie supported Parliament to counter the power of the absolute monarchy of Charles I. This conflict culminated in a civil war, the beheading of Charles I, and Oliver Cromwell’s victory. After Cromwell’s death and the restoration of the monarchy, a second revolution, known as the Glorious Revolution, took place. The Declaration of Rights, signed by William III in 1689, established the values and triumph of the liberal bourgeoisie. Locke contributed to legitimizing parliamentarianism with his theories.
The 18th century is the century of Enlightenment, which, in England, had already established epistemological, political, and religious foundations. The corresponding philosophical movement of this historical moment is empiricism. This philosophical trend posits that experience, both internal and external, is the sole source, boundary, and criterion of truth for human knowledge.
Descartes and Rationalism in the 16th and 17th Centuries
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the consolidation of national states and absolute monarchies took place. There was also a notable increase in the power of the bourgeoisie and the development of capitalism. The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years’ War, in which Descartes was involved. The Renaissance and the scientific revolution created the context in which modern philosophy began. Descartes presented the following characteristics of this new philosophy:
- Autonomy of reason: Reason is the guide, judge, and supreme court regarding the truth and what is convenient.
- Modern philosophy makes the problem of understanding the central problem of philosophy.
- The development of modern science, exemplified by Galileo and Newton, influenced modern philosophers.
Kant and the Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Kant lived during the 18th century. From the second half of the century, a deep social and political transformation occurred in Europe. Politically, the decline of the Spanish empire became evident, while France and England competed for hegemony. There was also a crisis of continental absolute monarchies. Culturally, the 18th century was marked by the Enlightenment. Kant sought to address the specific situation of philosophy and society of his time. According to Kant, the way people lived in the 18th century was not enlightened. The essence of the Enlightenment is the application of reason to all areas of human life. In Germany, the Enlightenment was characterized by the analysis of reason, with the aim of finding and establishing principles that govern the knowledge of nature and the moral and political actions of human life. Kant represents the most refined expression of this attitude.