Philosophical Ethics and Moral Psychology: Key Theories
Epicurean Philosophy: Achieving Tranquility
Epicurean philosophy has a twofold task: addressing misconceptions that foster fear and suffering, and cultivating a wise and supportive state of mind in all circumstances.
The Pursuit of Pleasure and Avoidance of Pain
The search for pleasure is innate; both children and animals naturally seek pleasure and shun pain. Pleasure and pain are considered the primary causes of actions in living beings. For Epicurus, pure pleasure (absence of pain in the body and trouble in the soul) is the supreme good, and pain is the ultimate evil.
Appetites and Their Management
Pleasures and suffering are a consequence of the management or mismanagement of appetites. Epicurus categorized appetites into three classes:
- The Natural and Necessary: Easily satisfied (e.g., eating when hungry). These are essential for happiness and survival.
- The Natural but Not Necessary: Not difficult to master, but not required for happiness (e.g., luxurious food, erotic love).
- The Unnatural and Unnecessary: Must be rejected completely (e.g., desire for fame, wealth, or power).
Prudence in Choosing Pleasure
Although pleasure is generally good and pain is generally bad, it is not wise to always choose momentary pleasure or always refuse momentary pain. Prudence dictates a careful calculation:
- We must reject pleasures that ultimately lead to greater suffering.
- We must accept pain when it leads to still greater pleasure or tranquility.
We must establish a pleasure-pain balance. Reason grants us the freedom of choice necessary for this balance.
Key Concepts of Existentialism
Existentialism emerged during the interwar period and reached its peak influence after the Second World War.
Sartre’s Defining Features of Existentialism
Jean-Paul Sartre attributed the following fundamental features to Existentialism:
- Existence Precedes Essence: Man has no predetermined nature; he is what he makes himself.
- Subjective Project: Man is a subjective, living project. He defines his values and goals before realizing them physically.
- Radical Responsibility: Man is entirely responsible for himself. What we are depends on what we choose to be.
- Freedom and Its Consequences: Human freedom is paramount, but it brings feelings of anguish, forlornness, and despair:
- Anguish: Arises from the realization that one is fully responsible for oneself and all humanity through one’s choices.
- Forlornness (or Abandonment): The realization that choice is made in solitude, without divine guidance.
- Despair: The recognition that complete control over reality is impossible, as unforeseen factors always exist.
- Doctrine of Action: Existentialism is a doctrine of action, contrary to quietism. Man is the sum of his actions and is responsible for his decisions.
Optimism and Self-Creation
Existentialism is often misunderstood as pessimistic. However, it is fundamentally optimistic because the fate of each individual is in their own hands. The doctrine rejects the idea that people are born a certain way; instead, the person is continually created through decisions and actions.
This philosophy challenges those dissatisfied with their current state—those who claim that missed opportunities or external factors prevented them from realizing their true talents. Existentialism asserts that you are your choices.
Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development
According to Jean Piaget, morality develops alongside intelligence, depending not only on intellectual capacity but also on social and emotional factors. Piaget identified three main stages in the development of moral reasoning:
Stage 1: Moral Obligation (Heteronomy)
Ranging from approximately 2 to 6 years, this stage corresponds to the pre-operational phase. The child exhibits a unilateral attitude of absolute respect for elders. The child does not yet have sufficient intellectual capacity to fully understand a moral standard; morality is based on blind obedience. Moral norms are seen almost as “things”—real, sacred, and untouchable. This is what Piaget called the realism of the rules. These rules are external to the child, characterized by heteronomy (morality imposed from outside). Any form of blind obedience belongs to this rudimentary moral type.
Stage 2: Moral Solidarity Among Equals (Reciprocity)
This stage spans from 7 to 11 years, corresponding with the concrete operational stage. Children become part of peer groups. Unilateral respect for elders is replaced by mutual respect and reciprocity, leading to the notion of equality. The sense of honesty and justice emerges. Standards are adhered to in solidarity with the group and to maintain group order.
Stage 3: Moral Equity (Autonomy)
This stage takes place after 12 years (adolescence). Altruism, interest in others, and compassion arise. Morality becomes autonomous as the teenager is able to conceive of general moral principles. Respect for collective standards is internalized and applied in a personal, principled way.