Philosophical Concepts of Life, Death, Evil, and Justice
Biological Concept of Life
There is no universal agreement on a biological definition of life, likely due to its complexity. Jacques Monod defined living beings as objects with a ‘project,’ possessing teleonomy. Living things also exhibit autonomous morphogenesis (self-development) and reproductive invariance (transmitting information unchanged).
Philosophical Concept of Life
Ancient Greeks extended ‘life’ beyond mere physical activities, encompassing human moral existence. From the 19th century, philosophers like Ortega y Gasset emphasized life’s importance. For Ortega, life is ‘being in a circumstance,’ not merely existing among things. Human life is active, constantly becoming, and involves choice and self-realization.
Existentialism and Death
Existentialism focuses on human existence rather than essence. For humans, existence precedes essence; we exist first, then define ourselves. Heidegger viewed death as integral to human existence, making us ‘beings for death.’ Sartre, conversely, saw death as separate from finitude; our freedom defines our existence, even if immortal. We are finite because we constantly choose: ‘being means chosen.’
Monism vs. Psychophysical Dualism
Monism posits a single substance in human reality. Types include pantheism (death as dissolution into the cosmos) and materialistic monism (death as the absolute limit). Dualism, conversely, argues for two realities: a material body and a spiritual soul. Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and major religions often view death as the separation of these components.
Justifying a Good God Amid Evil
The problem of reconciling God’s existence with evil is ancient. Epicurus’s dilemma: If God wants to remove evil but can’t, He’s powerless; if He can but won’t, He’s not benevolent; if He can and will, why does evil exist? Neoplatonism attributes evil to an inevitable degradation from the Divine. Reconciling God’s omnipotence and goodness requires analyzing evil.
Types of Evil
- Metaphysical evil: The finitude of things.
- Physical evil: Suffering from natural laws.
- Moral evil: Resulting from human free will.
Metaphysical vs. Moral Evil
Leibniz argued that metaphysical evil is inevitable due to the world’s finite nature. The question isn’t why evil exists, but whether God should create a finite world at all. Moral evil prompts practical rather than theoretical responses. Finitude isn’t inherently bad; it’s part of the universe. The challenge is whether physical or moral evil can be overcome.
Evil and Injustice
The absurdity of evil is most apparent in the suffering of the righteous. Why do good people suffer? Seneca proposed understanding the logos (providence) as the path to happiness. The real absurdity isn’t God and evil coexisting, but evil having the final say.
God as the Guarantor of Justice
Humanity has long recognized that the just don’t always achieve happiness, nor the unjust always punished. Reason demands justice. This requires a God who rectifies injustices. Nietzsche proclaimed God’s death, leaving humanity alone to grapple with evil. This raises fundamental ethical questions: Why be moral? Why not exploit others? Answering these questions is both difficult and essential.